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  Deer Populations of the Puget Sound

  Two species of deer have been prevalent in the Puget Sound area of Washington State in the Pacific Northwest of the United States. The black-tailed deer, a lowland, west-side cousin of the mule deer of eastern Washington, is now the most common. The other species, the Columbian white-tailed deer, in earlier times was common in the open prairie country; it is now restricted to the low, marshy islands and flood plains along the lower Columbia River.

  在太平洋西北區(qū)的美國華盛頓州，有兩種鹿在普吉特海灣非常普遍。最常見的黑尾鹿是華盛頓東部雜交鹿在西部的表親，它們生活在低地。另一種哥倫比亞白尾鹿，從前在開闊的草原上很常見，而現(xiàn)在只能在低矮的沼澤島嶼地帶和哥倫比亞河下游的河灘地區(qū)才能看到它們。

  Nearly any kind of plant of the forest understory can be part of a deer's diet. Where the forest inhibits the growth of grass and other meadow plants, the black-tailed deer browses on huckleberry, salal, dogwood, and almost any other shrub or herb. But this is fair-weather feeding. What keeps the black-tailed deer alive in the harsher seasons of plant decay and dormancy? One compensation for not hibernating is the built-in urge to migrate. Deer may move from high-elevation browse areas in summer down to the lowland areas in late fall. Even with snow on the ground, the high bushy understory is exposed; also snow and wind bring down leafy branches of cedar, hemlock, red alder, and other arboreal fodder.

  森林里，幾乎任何植物都是鹿的食物。在森林抑制草和其它草甸植物生長的地方，黑尾鹿可以吃越橘、北美白珠樹、山茱萸和其他幾乎所有灌木和草;但這些只能在好天氣里才能吃得到;在植物衰敗、隱匿的嚴寒季節(jié)，黑尾鹿們是如何過冬的呢?避免冬眠的一種方法就是天生的遷徙習性。它們會在夏天遷徙到高海拔覓食區(qū)，直到秋天結(jié)束再回到低地。即便地面還有殘雪，高的灌木也會露出來;風雪天氣會把雪松、鐵衫、紅榿木和其它喬木多葉的樹枝帶下來。

  The numbers of deer have fluctuated markedly since the entry of Europeans into Puget Sound country. The early explorers and settlers told of abundant deer in the early 1800s and yet almost in the same breath bemoaned the lack of this succulent game animal. Famous explorers of the north American frontier, Lewis and Clark arrived at the mouth of the Columbia River on November 14, 1805, in nearly starved circumstances. They had experienced great difficulty finding game west of the Rockies and not until the second of December did they kill their first elk. To keep 40 people alive that winter, they consumed approximately 150 elk and 20 deer. And when game moved out of the lowlands in early spring, the expedition decided to return east rather than face possible starvation. Later on in the early years of the nineteenth century, when Fort Vancouver became the headquarters of the Hudson's Bay Company, deer populations continued to fluctuate. David Douglas, Scottish botanical explorer of the 1830s, found a disturbing change in the animal life around the fort during the period between his first visit in 1825 and his final contact with the fort in 1832. A recent Douglas biographer states:" The deer which once picturesquely dotted the meadows around the fort were gone [in 1832], hunted to extermination in order to protect the crops."

  自從歐洲人進入了普吉特海灣，鹿群的數(shù)量發(fā)生了顯著的變化。早期的探險家和殖民者說起在19世紀早期那兒有大量的鹿群，與此同時惋惜現(xiàn)在這種誘人動物的稀少。著名的北美探險先驅(qū)者劉易斯和克拉克在落基山西部經(jīng)歷種種困難，并且直到第二年12月他們才殺死了第一只麋鹿。為了讓40人在冬天里存活，他們消耗了150只麋鹿和20只小鹿。當獵物在早春時期遷徙出了低地，遠征隊決定返回東部而不是去面對潛在的饑餓。此后在19世紀最初幾年里，溫哥華堡成為哈德遜灣公司的總部，鹿的數(shù)量持續(xù)波動。19世紀30年代，蘇格蘭植物學探險家大衛(wèi)?道格拉斯發(fā)現(xiàn)了他在1825年第一次的探訪和1832年的最后接觸之間出現(xiàn)在溫哥華堡附近令人不安的變化。在道格拉斯近期的傳記中陳述到：在1832年曾經(jīng)如畫般點綴在溫哥華堡附近草地上的鹿群已經(jīng)消失了，為了保護農(nóng)作物獵殺致滅絕。

  Reduction in numbers of game should have boded ill for their survival in later times. A worsening of the plight of deer was to be expected as settlers encroached on the land, logging, burning, and clearing, eventually replacing a wilderness landscape with roads, cities, towns, and factories. No doubt the numbers of deer declined still further. Recall the fate of the Columbian white-tailed deer, now in a protected status. But for the black-tailed deer, human pressure has had just the opposite effect. Wildlife zoologist Helmut Buechner(1953), in reviewing the nature of biotic changes in Washington through recorded time, says that "since the early 1940s, the state has had more deer than at any other time in its history, the winter population fluctuating around approximately 320,000 deer (mule and black-tailed deer), which will yield about 65,000 of either sex and any age annually for an indefinite period."

  鹿群數(shù)量的減少預(yù)示了它們今后生存的艱辛。當殖民者入侵它們的領(lǐng)地時，人類在它們生活的土地上進行采伐、焚燒，清除障礙，最終將公路、城市、城鎮(zhèn)和工廠代替了荒野風景。毋庸置疑，鹿群的數(shù)量進一步減少。回想起來，哥倫比亞白尾鹿的命運，現(xiàn)在已經(jīng)處于被保護地位。而對黑尾鹿來說，人類的壓力反而產(chǎn)生了相反的效果。野生動物學家赫爾穆特?布希納(1953)通過已有記錄評論了華盛頓地區(qū)生物的自然變化，他說：“20世紀40年代早期，美國擁有比以往任何歷史時期都多的鹿群，鹿群冬季的數(shù)量在接近32萬只鹿(雜交和黑尾鹿)左右波動，在此之后的每一年不同年齡段的公鹿和母鹿數(shù)量分別會增加至65 000只。

  The causes of this population rebound are consequences of other human actions. First, the major predators of deer—wolves, cougar, and lynx—have been greatly reduced in numbers. Second, conservation has been insured by limiting times for and types of hunting. But the most profound reason for the restoration of high population numbers has been the fate of the forests. Great tracts of lowland country deforested by logging, fire, or both have become ideal feeding grounds of deer. In addition to finding an increase of suitable browse, like huckleberry and vine maple, Arthur Einarsen, longtime game biologist in the Pacific Northwest, found quality of browse in the open areas to be substantially more nutritive. The protein content of shade-grown vegetation, for example, was much lower than that for plants grown in clearings.

  這種鹿群數(shù)量的反彈是由于人類其他活動造成。首先，狼、美洲豹和山貓等鹿群的主要獵食者急劇減少。其次，通過限制捕獵時間和捕獵種類來保護鹿群。但鹿群數(shù)量恢復(fù)的主要原因在于森林減少。大部分的低地的樹木被砍伐、焚燒，進而成為了鹿群理想的生活場地。以便他們?nèi)ふ腋m合的嫩葉，比如越橘類和楓葉。太平洋西北的生物學家亞瑟?埃納森還發(fā)現(xiàn)在空曠地區(qū)的高質(zhì)量的嫩葉大部分都是很有營養(yǎng)的，就像在遮蔽中生長的植物，他們所包含的蛋白質(zhì)比那些在空曠地區(qū)生長的植物的蛋白質(zhì)低得多。

  Paragraph 1: Two species of deer have been prevalent in the Puget Sound area of Washington State in the Pacific Northwest of the United States. The black-tailed deer, a lowland, west-side cousin of the mule deer of eastern Washington, is now the most common. The other species, the Columbian white-tailed deer, in earlier times was common in the open prairie country; it is now restricted to the low, marshy islands and flood plains along the lower Columbia River.

  1. According to paragraph 1, which of the following is true of the white-tailed deer of Puget Sound?

  ○It is native to lowlands and marshes.

  ○It is more closely related to the mule deer of eastern Washington than to other types of deer.

  ○It has replaced the black-tailed deer in the open prairie.

  ○It no longer lives in a particular type of habitat that it once occupied.

  Paragraph 2: Nearly any kind of plant of the forest understory can be part of a deer's diet. Where the forest inhibits the growth of grass and other meadow plants, the black-tailed deer browses on huckleberry, salal, dogwood, and almost any other shrub or herb. But this is fair-weather feeding. What keeps the black-tailed deer alive in the harsher seasons of plant decay and dormancy? One compensation for not hibernating is the built-in urge to migrate. Deer may move from high-elevation browse areas in summer down to the lowland areas in late fall. Even with snow on the ground, the high bushy understory is exposed; also snow and wind bring down leafy branches of cedar, hemlock, red alder, and other arboreal fodder.

  2. It can be inferred from the discussion in paragraph 2 that winter conditions

  ○ cause some deer to hibernate

  ○ make food unavailable in the highlands for deer

  ○ make it easier for deer to locate understory plants

  ○ prevent deer from migrating during the winter

  3. The word "inhibits" in the passage is closest in meaning to

  ○ consists of

  ○ combines

  ○ restricts

  ○ establishes

  Paragraph 3: The numbers of deer have fluctuated markedly since the entry of Europeans into Puget Sound country. The early explorers and settlers told of abundant deer in the early 1800s and yet almost in the same breath bemoaned the lack of this succulent game animal. Famous explorers of the north American frontier, Lewis and Clark arrived at the mouth of the Columbia River on November 14, 1805, in nearly starved circumstances. They had experienced great difficulty finding game west of the Rockies and not until the second of December did they kill their first elk. To keep 40 people alive that winter, they consumed approximately 150 elk and 20 deer. And when game moved out of the lowlands in early spring, the expedition decided to return east rather than face possible starvation. Later on in the early years of the nineteenth century, when Fort Vancouver became the headquarters of the Hudson's Bay Company, deer populations continued to fluctuate. David Douglas, Scottish botanical explorer of the 1830s, found a disturbing change in the animal life around the fort during the period between his first visit in 1825 and his final contact with the fort in 1832. A recent Douglas biographer states:" The deer which once picturesquely dotted the meadows around the fort were gone [in 1832], hunted to extermination in order to protect the crops."

  4. The phrase "in the same breath" in the passage is closest in meaning to

  ○ impatiently

  ○ humorously

  ○ continuously

  ○ immediately

  5. The author tells the story of the explorers Lewis and Clark in paragraph 3 in order to illustrate which of the following points?

  ○The number of deer within the Puget Sound region has varied over time.

  ○Most of the explorers who came to the Puget Sound area were primarily interested in hunting game.

  ○There was more game for hunting in the East of the United States than in the West.

  ○Individual explorers were not as successful at locating games as were the trading companies.

  6. According to paragraph 3, how had Fort Vancouver changed by the time David Douglas returned in 1832?

  ○The fort had become the headquarters for the Hudson's Bay Company.

  ○Deer had begun populating the meadows around the fort.

  ○Deer populations near the fort had been destroyed.

  ○Crop yields in the area around the fort had decreased.

  Paragraph 4: Reduction in numbers of game should have boded ill for their survival in later times. A worsening of the plight of deer was to be expected as settlers encroached on the land, logging, burning, and clearing, eventually replacing a wilderness landscape with roads, cities, towns, and factories. No doubt the numbers of deer declined still further. Recall the fate of the Columbian white-tailed deer, now in a protected status. But for the black-tailed deer, human pressure has had just the opposite effect. Wildlife zoologist Helmut Buechner(1953), in reviewing the nature of biotic changes in Washington through recorded time, says that "since the early 1940s, the state has had more deer than at any other time in its history, the winter population fluctuating around approximately 320,000 deer (mule and black-tailed deer), which will yield about 65,000 of either sex and any age annually for an indefinite period."

  7. Why does the author ask readers to recall “the fate of the Columbian white-tailed deer” in the discussion of changes in the wilderness landscape?

  ○To provide support for the idea that habitat destruction would lead to population decline

  ○To compare how two species of deer caused biotic changes in the wilderness environment

  ○To provide an example of a species of deer that has successfully adapted to human settlement

  ○To argue that some deer species must be given a protected status

  8. The phrase “indefinite period” in the passage is closest in meaning to period

  ○ whose end has not been determined

  ○ that does not begin when expected

  ○ that lasts only briefly

  ○ whose importance remains unknown

  9. Which of the following statements about deer populations is supported by the information in paragraph 4?

  ○Deer populations reached their highest point during the 1940s and then began to decline.

  ○The activities of settlers contributed in unexpected ways to the growth of some deer populations in later times.

  ○The cleaning of wilderness land for construction caused biotic changes from which the black-tailed deer population has never recovered.

  ○Since the 1940s the winter populations of deer have fluctuated more than the summer populations have.

  Paragraph 5: The causes of this population rebound are consequences of other human actions. First, the major predators of deer—wolves, cougar, and lynx—have been greatly reduced in numbers. Second, conservation has been insured by limiting times for and types of hunting. But the most profound reason for the restoration of high population numbers has been the fate of the forests. Great tracts of lowland country deforested by logging, fire, or both have become ideal feeding grounds of deer. In addition to finding an increase of suitable browse, like huckleberry and vine maple, Arthur Einarsen, longtime game biologist in the Pacific Northwest, found quality of browse in the open areas to be substantially more nutritive. The protein content of shade-grown vegetation, for example, was much lower than that for plants grown in clearings.

  10.The word “rebound” in the passage is closest in meaning to

  ○ decline

  ○ recovery

  ○ exchange

  ○ movement

  11.Which of the sentences below best expresses the essential information in the highlighted sentence in the passage? Incorrect choices change the meaning in important ways or leave out essential information.

  ○Arthur Einarsen’s longtime family with the Pacific Northwest helped him discover areas where deer had an increase in suitable browse.

  ○Arthur Einarsen found that deforested feeding grounds provided deer with more and better food.

  ○B(yǎng)iologist like Einarsen believe it is important to find additional open areas with suitable browse for deer to inhabit.

  ○According to Einarsen, huckleberry and vine maple are examples of vegetation that may someday improve the nutrition of deer in the open areas of the Pacific Northwest.

  12.Which of the following is NOT mentioned in paragraph 5 as a factor that has increased deer populations?

  ○A reduction in the number of predators

  ○Restrictions on hunting

  ○The effects of logging and fire

  ○Laws that protected feeding grounds of deer

  Paragraph 2: Nearly any kind of plant of the forest understory can be part of a deer's diet. Where the forest inhibits the growth of grass and other meadow plants, the black-tailed deer browses on huckleberry, salal, dogwood, and almost any other shrub or herb. But this is fair-weather feeding. What keeps the black-tailed deer alive in the harsher seasons of plant decay and dormancy? One compensation for not hibernating is the built-in urge to migrate. █Deer may move from high-elevation browse areas in summer down to the lowland areas in late fall. █Even with snow on the ground, the high bushy understory is exposed; also snow and wind bring down leafy branches of cedar, hemlock, red alder, and other arboreal fodder.

  Paragraph 3: █The numbers of deer have fluctuated markedly since the entry of Europeans into Puget Sound country. █The early explorers and settlers told of abundant deer in the early 1800s and yet almost in the same breath bemoaned the lack of this succulent game animal. Famous explorers of the north American frontier, Lewis and Clark arrived at the mouth of the Columbia River on November 14, 1805, in nearly starved circumstances. They had experienced great difficulty finding game west of the Rockies and not until the second of December did they kill their first elk. To keep 40 people alive that winter, they consumed approximately 150 elk and 20 deer. And when game moved out of the lowlands in early spring, the expedition decided to return east rather than face possible starvation. Later on in the early years of the nineteenth century, when Fort Vancouver became the headquarters of the Hudson's Bay Company, deer populations continued to fluctuate. David Douglas, Scottish botanical explorer of the 1830s, found a disturbing change in the animal life around the fort during the period between his first visit in 1825 and his final contact with the fort in 1832. A recent Douglas biographer states:" The deer which once picturesquely dotted the meadows around the fort were gone [in 1832], hunted to extermination in order to protect the crops."

  13.Look at the four squares [█] that indicate where the following sentence could be added to the passage.

  There food is available and accessible throughout the winter.

  Where would the sentence best fit?

  14.Directions: An introductory sentence for a brief summary of the passage is provided below. Complete the summary by selecting the THREE answer that express the most important ideas in the passage. Some sentences do not belong in the summary because they express ideas that not presented in the passage or are minor ideas in the passage. This question is worth 2 points.

  Deer in the Puget Sound area eat a wide variety of foods and migrate seasonally food.

  ●

  ●

  ●

  Answer Choices

  ○ The balance of deer species in the Puget Sound region has changed over time, with the Columbian white-tailed deer now outnumbering other types of deer.

  ○ Deer populations naturally fluctuate, but early settlers in the Puget Sound environment caused an overall decline in the deer populations of the areas at that time.

  ○ In the long term, black-tailed deer in the Puget Sound area have benefitted from human activities through the elimination of their natural predators, and more and better food in deforested areas.

  ○ Because Puget Sound deer migrate, it was and still remains difficult to determine accurately how many deer are living at any one time in the western United States.

  ○ Although it was believed that human settlement of the American West would cause the total number of deer to decrease permanently, the opposite has occurred for certain types of deer.

  ○ Wildlife biologists have long been concerned that the loss of forests may create nutritional deficiencies for deer.

  參考答案：

  1. ○4

  2. ○ 2

  3. ○ 3

  4. ○4

  5. ○1

  6. ○3

  7. ○1

  8. ○ 1

  9. ○2

  10. ○ 2

  11. ○2

  12. ○4

  13. ○2

  14. Deer populations naturally…

  In the long term…

  Although it was believed…

  Cave Art in Europe

  The earliest discovered traces of art are beads and carvings, and then paintings, from sites dating back to the Upper Paleolithic period. We might expect that early artistic efforts would be crude, but the cave paintings of Spain and southern France show a marked degree of skill. So do the naturalistic paintings on slabs of stone excavated in southern Africa. Some of those slabs appear to have been painted as much as 28,000 years ago, which suggests that painting in Africa is as old as painting in Europe. But painting may be even older than that. The early Australians may have painted on the walls of rock shelters and cliff faces at least 30,000 years ago, and maybe as much as 60,000 years ago.

  迄今為止，發(fā)現(xiàn)的最早的并且有跡可尋的工藝品是珠鏈和雕刻，然后還有繪畫，人類在舊石器時代晚期的遺址上發(fā)現(xiàn)了它們。雖然我們可能會認為早期的藝術(shù)成就都是不成熟的，但西班牙與法國南部的巖洞畫顯示出了高超的技藝，在非洲南部發(fā)掘出的自然石板畫也是如此。其中的一些石板畫看上去像是在28 000年前畫出的，這表明非洲繪畫與歐洲繪畫一樣時間久遠，但可能更早些。至少30 000年前，也可能追溯至60 000年前，早期澳大利亞人就已經(jīng)在巖石遮蔽的墻上和懸崖斷面上作畫了。

  The researchers Peter Ucko and Andree Rosenfeld identified three principal locations of paintings in the caves of western Europe: (1) in obviously inhabited rock shelters and cave entrances; (2) in galleries immediately off the inhabited areas of caves; and (3) in the inner reaches of caves, whose difficulty of access has been interpreted by some as a sign that magical-religious activities were performed there.

  研究人員彼特?阿寇和安德烈?羅森菲爾德指出西歐洞畫的三個主要地點：(1)在明顯有遮蔽可供人類居住的巖石和洞穴入口處，(2)在居住的洞穴一出門的走廊上，(3)在洞穴所能及的最深處，有人認為之所以在最深處作畫是因為當時的人們曾在這里進行神秘的宗教活動。

  The subjects of the paintings are mostly animals. The paintings rest on bare walls, with no backdrops or environmental trappings. Perhaps, like many contemporary peoples, Upper Paleolithic men and women believed that the drawing of a human image could cause death or injury, and if that were indeed their belief, it might explain why human figures are rarely depicted in cave art. Another explanation for the focus on animals might be that these people sought to improve their luck at hunting. This theory is suggested by evidence of chips in the painted figures, perhaps made by spears thrown at the drawings. But if improving their hunting luck was the chief motivation for the paintings, it is difficult to explain why only a few show signs of having been speared. Perhaps the paintings were inspired by the need to increase the supply of animals. Cave art seems to have reached a peak toward the end of the Upper Paleolithic period, when the herds of game were decreasing.

  這些繪畫的主題大部分都是動物。這些畫畫在裸露的巖石上，沒有任何背景和環(huán)境裝飾。或許，同許多當代人一樣，后石器時代的人們也相信畫人物像會引起傷害或死亡。如果這確實是他們的信念，那就解釋了為什么在洞穴繪畫中很少描繪人物。對于畫中以動物題材為主的另一個解釋是，人們在探索如何提高打獵的命中率。墻上所畫的動物身上有一些傷口，很可能是原始人向它們?nèi)用瑫r留下的，這個證據(jù)也證實了以上判斷。但如果提高打獵命中率真的是巖壁畫的主要動機，那么就很難解釋為什么只有少數(shù)畫上有被矛戳過的痕跡。或許是出于增加獵物的需求而畫的畫。在后期舊石器時代獵群數(shù)量減少時，巖洞畫藝術(shù)似乎達到了頂峰。

  The particular symbolic significance of the cave paintings in southwestern France is more explicitly revealed, perhaps, by the results of a study conducted by researchers Patricia Rice and Ann Paterson. The data they present suggest that the animals portrayed in the cave paintings were mostly the ones that the painters preferred for meat and for materials such as hides. For example, wild cattle (bovines) and horses are portrayed more often than we would expect by chance, probably because they were larger and heavier (meatier) than other animals in the environment. In addition, the paintings mostly portray animals that the painters may have feared the most because of their size, speed, natural weapons such as tusks and horns, and the unpredictability of their behavior. That is, mammoths, bovines, and horses are portrayed more often than deer and reindeer. Thus, the paintings are consistent with the idea that the art is related to the importance of hunting in the economy of Upper Paleolithic people. Consistent with this idea, according to the investigators, is the fact that the art of the cultural period that followed the Upper Paleolithic also seems to reflect how people got their food. But in that period, when getting food no longer depended on hunting large game animals (because they were becoming extinct), the art ceased to focus on portrayals of animals.

  也許研究者帕特麗夏?賴斯和安?派特森所做研究的結(jié)果更清楚地揭示了法國西南部的巖洞畫的特殊象征性意義。研究顯示，繪畫者喜歡食用的動物或喜歡用作獸皮的動物是巖洞畫中經(jīng)常被描繪的動物。比如，野牛(牛)和馬的出現(xiàn)比我們預(yù)料的更為頻繁，可能因為它們比其它動物更大更沉(肉更多)。另外，畫作中主要描繪了繪畫者害怕的動物，它們的體形、速度、與生俱來的武器如長牙和角，以及它們行為的不可預(yù)知性都令繪畫者感到恐懼。于是，和鹿、馴鹿相比，猛犸、牛和馬會更經(jīng)常畫在墻上。因此，在舊石器時代晚期的人的經(jīng)濟中，巖洞藝術(shù)與打獵的重要性有關(guān)，這些畫作也與這個觀點相符合。看起來舊石器時代晚期的文化期的藝術(shù)也反映了人們?nèi)绾蔚玫绞澄铮鶕?jù)調(diào)查者的研究，這一事實也與前文的想法一致。但在那個時期，當不再依靠獵取大型獵物獲得食物時(因為它們開始變得稀少)，巖洞藝術(shù)便不再以描繪動物為主了。

  Upper Paleolithic art was not confined to cave paintings. Many shafts of spears and similar objects were decorated with figures of animals. The anthropologist Alexander Marshack has an interesting interpretation of some of the engravings made during the Upper Paleolithic. He believes that as far back as 30,000 B.C., hunters may have used a system of notation, engraved on bone and stone, to mark phases of the Moon. If this is true, it would mean that Upper Paleolithic people were capable of complex thought and were consciously aware of their environment. In addition to other artworks, figurines representing the human female in exaggerated form have also been found at Upper Paleolithic sites. It has been suggested that these figurines were an ideal type or an expression of a desire for fertility.

  舊石器時代晚期的藝術(shù)不僅僅局限于洞穴繪畫。許多矛桿和類似的東西上都畫了動物作為裝飾。人類學家亞歷山大?馬斯哈克對舊石器時代晚期的一些雕刻品有一個有趣的解釋。他認為在公元前30 000年，獵人們可能使用了一種刻在骨頭或石頭上的標志法來標記不同的月相。如果此論述是真的，這就意味著舊石器時代晚期的人們已經(jīng)有了復(fù)雜的思維并對他們的環(huán)境有了一個理性的認識。人們還在舊石器時代晚期的遺址上發(fā)現(xiàn)了以夸張的形式描繪婦女的小雕塑。這也暗示了這些小雕塑是一種理想形象或者說表達了當時的人類期望多生育的愿望。

  Paragraph 1: The earliest discovered traces of art are beads and carvings, and then paintings, from sites dating back to the Upper Paleolithic period. We might expect that early artistic efforts would be crude, but the cave paintings of Spain and southern France show a marked degree of skill. So do the naturalistic paintings on slabs of stone excavated in southern Africa. Some of those slabs appear to have been painted as much as 28,000 years ago, which suggests that painting in Africa is as old as painting in Europe. But painting may be even older than that. The early Australians may have painted on the walls of rock shelters and cliff faces at least 30,000 years ago, and maybe as much as 60,000 years ago.

  1.The word “marked” in the passage is closest in meaning to

  ○considerable

  ○surprising

  ○limited

  ○adequate

  2.Paragraph 1 supports which of the following statements about painting in Europe?

  ○It is much older than painting in Australia.

  ○It is as much as 28,000 years old.

  ○It is not as old as painting in southern Africa.

  ○It is much more than 30,000 years old.

  Paragraph 2: The researchers Peter Ucko and Andree Rosenfeld identified three principal locations of paintings in the caves of western Europe: (1) in obviously inhabited rock shelters and cave entrances; (2) in galleries immediately off the inhabited areas of caves; and (3) in the inner reaches of caves, whose difficulty of access has been interpreted by some as a sign that magical-religious activities were performed there.

  3.The word “principal” in the passage is closest in meaning to

  ○major

  ○likely

  ○well protected

  ○distinct

  4.According to paragraph 2, what makes some researchers think that certain cave paintings were connected with magical-religious activities?

  ○The paintings were located where many people could easily see them, allowing groups of people to participate in the magical-religious activities.

  ○Upper Paleolithic people shared similar beliefs with contemporary peoples who use paintings of animals in their magical-religious rituals.

  ○Evidence of magical-religious activities has been found in galleries immediately off the inhabited areas of caves.

  ○The paintings were found in hard-to-reach places away from the inhabited parts of the cave.

  Paragraph 3: The subjects of the paintings are mostly animals. The paintings rest on bare walls, with no backdrops or environmental trappings. Perhaps, like many contemporary peoples, Upper Paleolithic men and women believed that the drawing of a human image could cause death or injury, and if that were indeed their belief, it might explain why human figures are rarely depicted in cave art. Another explanation for the focus on animals might be that these people sought to improve their luck at hunting. This theory is suggested by evidence of chips in the painted figures, perhaps made by spears thrown at the drawings. But if improving their hunting luck was the chief motivation for the paintings, it is difficult to explain why only a few show signs of having been speared. Perhaps the paintings were inspired by the need to increase the supply of animals. Cave art seems to have reached a peak toward the end of the Upper Paleolithic period, when the herds of game were decreasing.

  5.The word “trappings” in the passage is closest in meaning to

  ○conditions

  ○problems

  ○influences

  ○decorations

  6. Which of the sentences below best expresses the essential information in the highlighted sentence in the passage? Incorrect choices change the meaning in important ways or leave out essential information.

  ○Upper Paleolithic people, like many contemporary peoples, believed that if they drew a human image in their cave art, it would cause death or injury.

  ○Many contemporary people believe that the drawing of a human image can cause death or injury, so they, like Upper Paleolithic people, rarely depicted human figures in their cave art.

  ○If Upper Paleolithic people, like many contemporary peoples, believed that the drawing of a human image could cause death or injury, this belief might explain why human figures are rarely depicted in cave art.

  ○Although many contemporary peoples believe that the drawing of a human image can cause death or injury, researchers cannot explain why Upper Paleolithic people rarely depicted human figures in their cave art.來源：北京新航道托福培訓

  7.According to paragraph 3, scholars explained chips in the painted figures of animals by proposing that

  ○Upper Paleolithic artists used marks to record the animals they had seen

  ○the paintings were inspired by the need to increase the supply of animals for hunting

  ○the artists had removed rough spots on the cave walls

  ○Upper Paleolithic people used the paintings to increase their luck at hunting

  8.Why does the author mention that Upper Paleolithic cave art seemed to have “reached a peak toward the end of the Upper Paleolithic period, when the herds of game were decreasing”?

  ○To argue that Upper Paleolithic art ceased to include animals when herds of game became scarce

  ○To provide support for the idea that the aim of the paintings was to increase the supply of animals for hunting

  ○To emphasize the continued improvement in the quality of cave art throughout the Upper Paleolithic period

  ○To show the direct connection between the decrease in herds of game and the end of the Upper Paleolithic period

  Paragraph 4: The particular symbolic significance of the cave paintings in southwestern France is more explicitly revealed, perhaps, by the results of a study conducted by researchers Patricia Rice and Ann Paterson. The data they present suggest that the animals portrayed in the cave paintings were mostly the ones that the painters preferred for meat and for materials such as hides. For example, wild cattle (bovines) and horses are portrayed more often than we would expect by chance, probably because they were larger and heavier (meatier) than other animals in the environment. In addition, the paintings mostly portray animals that the painters may have feared the most because of their size, speed, natural weapons such as tusks and horns, and the unpredictability of their behavior. That is, mammoths, bovines, and horses are portrayed more often than deer and reindeer. Thus, the paintings are consistent with the idea that the art is related to the importance of hunting in the economy of Upper Paleolithic people. Consistent with this idea, according to the investigators, is the fact that the art of the cultural period that followed the Upper Paleolithic also seems to reflect how people got their food. But in that period, when getting food no longer depended on hunting large game animals (because they were becoming extinct), the art ceased to focus on portrayals of animals.

  9.According to paragraph 4, scholars believe that wild cattle, horses, and mammoths are the animals most frequently portrayed in cave paintings for all of the following reasons EXCEPT:

  ○These animals were difficult to hunt because their unpredictable behavior.

  ○People preferred these animals for their meat and for their skins.

  ○The painters admired the beauty of these large animals.

  ○People feared these animals because of their size and speed.

  10.According to paragraph 4, which of the following may best represent the attitude of hunters toward deer and reindeer in the Upper Paleolithic period?

  ○Hunters did not fear deer and reindeers as much as they did large game animals such as horses and mammoths.

  ○Hunters were not interested in hunting deer and reindeer because of their size and speed.

  ○Hunters preferred the meat and hides of deer and reindeer to those of other animals.

  ○Hunters avoided deer and reindeer because of their natural weapons, such as horns.

  11.According to paragraph 4, what change is evident in the art of the period following the Upper Paleolithic?

  ○This new art starts to depict small animals rather than large ones.

  ○This new art ceases to reflect the ways in which people obtained their food.

  ○This new art no longer consists mostly of representations of animals.

  ○This new art begins to show the importance of hunting to the economy.

  Paragraph 5: Upper Paleolithic art was not confined to cave paintings. Many shafts of spears and similar objects were decorated with figures of animals. The anthropologist Alexander Marshack has an interesting interpretation of some of the engravings made during the Upper Paleolithic. He believes that as far back as 30,000 B.C., hunters may have used a system of notation, engraved on bone and stone, to mark phases of the Moon. If this is true, it would mean that Upper Paleolithic people were capable of complex thought and were consciously aware of their environment. In addition to other artworks, figurines representing the human female in exaggerated form have also been found at Upper Paleolithic sites. It has been suggested that these figurines were an ideal type or an expression of a desire for fertility.

  12.According to paragraph 5, which of the following has been used as evidence to suggest that Upper Paleolithic people were capable of complex thought and conscious awareness of their environment?

  ○They engraved animal figures on the shafts of spears and other objects.

  ○They may have used engraved signs to record the phases of the Moon.

  ○Their figurines represented the human female in exaggerated form.

  ○They may have used figurines to portray an ideal type or to express a desire for fertility.

  Paragraph 3: The subjects of the paintings are mostly animals. The paintings rest on bare walls, with no backdrops or environmental trappings. Perhaps, like many contemporary peoples, Upper Paleolithic men and women believed that the drawing of a human image could cause death or injury, and if that were indeed their belief, it might explain why human figures are rarely depicted in cave art. Another explanation for the focus on animals might be that these people sought to improve their luck at hunting. █This theory is suggested by evidence of chips in the painted figures, perhaps made by spears thrown at the drawings. █But if improving their hunting luck was the chief motivation for the paintings, it is difficult to explain why only a few show signs of having been speared. █Perhaps the paintings were inspired by the need to increase the supply of animals. Cave art seems to have reached a peak toward the end of the Upper Paleolithic period, when the herds of game were decreasing. █

  13.Look at the four squares [█] that indicate where the following sentence could be added to the passage.

  Therefore, if the paintings were connected with hunting, some other explanation is needed.

  Where would the sentence best fit?

  14.Directions: An introductory sentence for a brief summary of the passage is provided below. Complete the summary by selecting the THREE answer choices that explain the most important ideas in the passage. Some sentences do not belong in the summary because they express ideas that are not presented in the passage or are minor ideas in the passage. This question is worth 2 points.

  Upper Paleolithic cave paintings in Western Europe are among humanity’s earliest artistic efforts.

  ●

  ●

  ●

  Answer choices

  ○Researchers have proposed several different explanations for the fact that animals were the most common subjects in the cave paintings.

  ○The art of the cultural period that followed the Upper Paleolithic ceased to portray large game animals and focused instead on the kinds of animals that people of that period preferred to hunt.

  ○Some researchers believe that the paintings found in France provide more explicit evidence of their symbolic significance than those found in Spain, southern Africa, and Australia.

  ○The cave paintings focus on portraying animals without also depicting the natural environments in which these animals are typically found.

  ○Some researchers have argued that the cave paintings mostly portrayed large animals that provided Upper Paleolithic people with meat and materials.

  ○B(yǎng)esides cave paintings, Upper Paleolithic people produced several other kinds of artwork, one of which has been thought to provide evidence of complex thought.

  參考答案：

  1. ○1

  2. ○2

  3. ○1

  4. ○4

  5. ○4

  6. ○3

  7. ○4

  8.○2

  9. ○3

  10. ○1

  11. ○3

  12. ○2

  13. ○3

  14. Researchers have proposed…

  Some researchers believe…

  Besides cave paintings…

  Petroleum Resources

  Petroleum, consisting of crude oil and natural gas, seems to originate from organic matter in marine sediment. Microscopic organisms settle to the seafloor and accumulate in marine mud. The organic matter may partially decompose, using up the dissolved oxygen in the sediment. As soon as the oxygen is gone, decay stops and the remaining organic matter is preserved.

  石油是由原油和天然氣組成，似乎都源自于海洋的有機物沉淀。微小的有機物沉積到海底并堆聚在海泥里，有機物會局部分解，消耗沉淀里的溶解氧，當氧氣消耗殆盡分解便停止，留下剩余的有機物。

  Continued sedimentation—the process of deposits’ settling on the sea bottom—buries the organic matter and subjects it to higher temperatures and pressures, which convert the organic matter to oil and gas. As muddy sediments are pressed together, the gas and small droplets of oil may be squeezed out of the mud and may move into sandy layers nearby. Over long periods of time (millions of years), accumulations of gas and oil can collect in the sandy layers. Both oil and gas are less dense than water, so they generally tend to rise upward through water-saturated rock and sediment.

  持續(xù)的沉積——堆積物沉積到海底的過程將有機物埋在海底使之受到海底溫度、高壓的影響，最終轉(zhuǎn)變成石油和天然氣。當泥狀沉積物被擠壓在一起時，天然氣和石油液滴會被擠出泥層，然后進入附近的沙層。經(jīng)過很長的一個周期(數(shù)百萬年)，積聚的天然氣和石油會在沙層中聚集。因為石油和天然氣的密度都比水低，所以他們通常通過飽含水的巖層和沉積物往上升。

  Oil pools are valuable underground accumulations of oil, and oil fields are regions underlain by one or more oil pools. When an oil pool or field has been discovered, wells are drilled into the ground. Permanent towers, called derricks, used to be built to handle the long sections of drilling pipe. Now portable drilling machines are set up and are then dismantled and removed. When the well reaches a pool, oil usually rises up the well because of its density difference with water beneath it or because of the pressure of expanding gas trapped above it. Although this rise of oil is almost always carefully controlled today, spouts of oil, or gushers, were common in the past. Gas pressure gradually dies out, and oil is pumped from the well. Water or steam may be pumped down adjacent wells to help push the oil out. At a refinery, the crude oil from underground is separated into natural gas, gasoline, kerosene, and various oils. Petrochemicals such as dyes, fertilizer, and plastic are also manufactured from the petroleum.

  油床是寶貴的地下石油積聚處，而油田是被一個或多個油藏覆蓋區(qū)域。當人們發(fā)現(xiàn)油藏或油田時，就會把井鉆到地下。固定的塔稱為井架，建造井架是為了控制長距離的鉆桿。現(xiàn)代使用的便攜式鉆井機安裝使用完成后，會被拆除和移走。因為石油的密度與在下層的水不同，或者因為石油上面的氣體擴張形成的壓力，當井探至油藏時，石油通常會上升至井內(nèi)。現(xiàn)在石油的上升已經(jīng)可以很好的進行控制，但在過去，井噴或管涌經(jīng)常發(fā)生。氣體壓力逐漸減小，然后油從井中被抽出。水或蒸汽會通過相鄰的井被注入，以幫助推出石油。在煉油廠，地下的原油被分離成天然氣、汽油、煤油和各種油類。石油還可用來生產(chǎn)石油化工產(chǎn)品，如染料、化肥、塑料制品等。

  As oil becomes increasingly difficult to find, the search for it is extended into more-hostile environments. The development of the oil field on the North Slope of Alaska and the construction of the Alaska pipeline are examples of the great expense and difficulty involved in new oil discoveries. Offshore drilling platforms extend the search for oil to the ocean’s continental shelves—those gently sloping submarine regions at the edges of the continents. More than one-quarter of the world’s oil and almost one-fifth of the world’s natural gas come from offshore, even though offshore drilling is six to seven times more expensive than drilling on land. A significant part of this oil and gas comes from under the North Sea between Great Britain and Norway.

  隨著石油越來越難以找到，石油勘探已經(jīng)開始到更惡劣的環(huán)境中進行。比如，在最新發(fā)現(xiàn)的油田案例中，阿拉斯加北坡油田的開發(fā)和阿拉斯加管道建設(shè)就是成本高、難度大的例子。海底鉆探平臺將尋找石油的區(qū)域延伸到了海洋大陸架上——陸地附近淺海下緩緩的斜坡。世界上1/4以上的石油和近1/5的天然氣都來自近海，盡管近海鉆井的成本比陸地鉆井高6至7倍。世界上相當一部分的石油和天然氣來自英國和挪威之間的北海。

  Of course, there is far more oil underground than can be recovered. It may be in a pool too small or too far from a potential market to justify the expense of drilling. Some oil lies under regions where drilling is forbidden, such as national parks or other public lands. Even given the best extraction techniques, only about 30 to 40 percent of the oil in a given pool can be brought to the surface. The rest is far too difficult to extract and has to remain underground.

  當然，地下還能發(fā)現(xiàn)更多的石油。油藏可能太小或遠離潛在的市場因而鉆井費用過高而不適宜開采。一些石油存在于禁止鉆井的地區(qū)，如國家公園或其他公共土地。即使提供最好的采油技術(shù)，油藏中也只有大約30%到40%的石油可以抽至地面。其余的因為太難抽取而不得不留在地下。

  Moreover, getting petroleum out of the ground and from under the sea and to the consumer can create environmental problems anywhere along the line. Pipelines carrying oil can be broken by faults or landslides, causing serious oil spills. Spillage from huge oil-carrying cargo ships, called tankers, involved in collisions or accidental groundings (such as the one off Alaska in 1989) can create oil slicks at sea. Offshore platforms may also lose oil, creating oil slicks that drift ashore and foul the beaches, harming the environment. Sometimes, the ground at an oil field may subside as oil is removed. The Wilmington field near Long Beach, California, has subsided nine meters in 50 years; protective barriers have had to be built to prevent seawater from flooding the area. Finally, the refining and burning of petroleum and its products can cause air pollution. Advancing technology and strict laws, however, are helping control some of these adverse environmental effects.

  此外，從地下和海底開采石油并運送到消費者的途中的任何地方都會產(chǎn)生環(huán)境問題。如果石油運輸管道因為故障或塌方損壞，將會造成嚴重的石油泄漏。運載石油的油輪在發(fā)生碰撞或意外擱淺(如在1989年阿拉斯加發(fā)生的油輪擱淺)的情況下，石油泄露會導致海上產(chǎn)生浮油。海上鉆井平臺也可能會泄露石油，導致油污漂流到岸上造成海灘污染，危害環(huán)境。有時一個油田的石油被抽取后，地面會發(fā)生下沉。加利福尼亞州長灘附近的威爾明頓油田在50年內(nèi)下沉了9米;人們不得不建造保護圍墻以防止海水灌進這個地區(qū)。最后，石油煉制、燃燒以及其產(chǎn)品也會造成空氣污染。不過不管怎樣，先進的技術(shù)和嚴格的法律正在協(xié)助控制這些對環(huán)境的不利影響。

  Paragraph 1: Petroleum, consisting of crude oil and natural gas, seems to originate from organic matter in marine sediment. Microscopic organisms settle to the seafloor and accumulate in marine mud. The organic matter may partially decompose, using up the dissolved oxygen in the sediment. As soon as the oxygen is gone, decay stops and the remaining organic matter is preserved.

  1.The word “accumulate” in the passage is closest in meaning to

  ○grow up

  ○build up

  ○spread out

  ○break apart

  2.According to paragraph 1, which of the following is true about petroleum formation?

  ○Microscopic organisms that live in mud produce crude oil and natural gas.

  ○Large amounts of oxygen are needed for petroleum formation to begin.

  ○Petroleum is produced when organic material in sediments combines with decaying marine organisms.

  ○Petroleum formation appears to begin in marine sediments where organic matter is present.

  Paragraph 1: Petroleum, consisting of crude oil and natural gas, seems to originate from organic matter in marine sediment. Microscopic organisms settle to the seafloor and accumulate in marine mud. The organic matter may partially decompose, using up the dissolved oxygen in the sediment. As soon as the oxygen is gone, decay stops and the remaining organic matter is preserved.

  Paragraph 2: Continued sedimentation—the process of deposits’ settling on the sea bottom—buries the organic matter and subjects it to higher temperatures and pressures, which convert the organic matter to oil and gas. As muddy sediments are pressed together, the gas and small droplets of oil may be squeezed out of the mud and may move into sandy layers nearby. Over long periods of time (millions of years), accumulations of gas and oil can collect in the sandy layers. Both oil and gas are less dense than water, so they generally tend to rise upward through water-saturated rock and sediment.

  3.In paragraphs 1 and 2, the author’s primary purpose is to

  ○describe how petroleum is formed

  ○explain why petroleum formation is a slow process

  ○provide evidence that a marine environment is necessary for petroleum formation

  ○show that oil commonly occurs in association with gas

  4.Which of the sentences below best expresses the essential information in the highlighted sentence in the passage? Incorrect choices change the meaning in important ways or leave out essential information.

  ○Higher temperatures and pressures promote sedimentation, which is responsible for petroleum formation.

  ○Deposits of sediments on top of organic matter increase the temperature of and pressure on the matter.

  ○Increase pressure and heat from the weight of the sediment turn the organic remains into petroleum.

  ○The remains of microscopic organisms transform into petroleum once they are buried under mud.

  Paragraph 3: Oil pools are valuable underground accumulations of oil, and oil fields are regions underlain by one or more oil pools. When an oil pool or field has been discovered, wells are drilled into the ground. Permanent towers, called derricks, used to be built to handle the long sections of drilling pipe. Now portable drilling machines are set up and are then dismantled and removed. When the well reaches a pool, oil usually rises up the well because of its density difference with water beneath it or because of the pressure of expanding gas trapped above it. Although this rise of oil is almost always carefully controlled today, spouts of oil, or gushers, were common in the past. Gas pressure gradually dies out, and oil is pumped from the well. Water or steam may be pumped down adjacent wells to help push the oil out. At a refinery, the crude oil from underground is separated into natural gas, gasoline, kerosene, and various oils. Petrochemicals such as dyes, fertilizer, and plastic are also manufactured from the petroleum.

  5.The word “adjacent” in the passage is closest in meaning to

  ○nearby

  ○existing

  ○special

  ○deep

  6.Which of the following can be inferred from paragraph 3 about gushers?

  ○They make bringing the oil to the surface easier.

  ○They signal the presence of huge oil reserves.

  ○They waste more oil than they collect.

  ○They are unlikely to occur nowadays.

  Paragraph 4: As oil becomes increasingly difficult to find, the search for it is extended into more-hostile environments. The development of the oil field on the North Slope of Alaska and the construction of the Alaska pipeline are examples of the great expense and difficulty involved in new oil discoveries. Offshore drilling platforms extend the search for oil to the ocean’s continental shelves—those gently sloping submarine regions at the edges of the continents. More than one-quarter of the world’s oil and almost one-fifth of the world’s natural gas come from offshore, even though offshore drilling is six to seven times more expensive than drilling on land. A significant part of this oil and gas comes from under the North Sea between Great Britain and Norway.

  7.Which of the following strategies for oil exploration is described in paragraph 4?

  ○Drilling under the ocean’s surface

  ○Limiting drilling to accessible locations

  ○Using highly sophisticated drilling equipment

  ○Constructing technologically advanced drilling platforms

  8.What does the development of the Alaskan oil field mentioned in paragraph 4 demonstrate?

  ○More oil is extracted from the sea than from land.

  ○Drilling for oil requires major financial investments.

  ○The global demand for oil has increased over the years.

  ○The North Slope of Alaska has substantial amounts of oil.

  9.The word “sloping” in the passage is closest in meaning to

  ○shifting

  ○inclining

  ○forming

  ○rolling

  Paragraph 5: Of course, there is far more oil underground than can be recovered. It may be in a pool too small or too far from a potential market to justify the expense of drilling. Some oil lies under regions where drilling is forbidden, such as national parks or other public lands. Even given the best extraction techniques, only about 30 to 40 percent of the oil in a given pool can be brought to the surface. The rest is far too difficult to extract and has to remain underground.

  10.According to paragraph 5, the decision to drill for oil depends on all of the following factors EXCEPT

  ○permission to access the area where oil has been found

  ○the availability of sufficient quantities of oil in a pool

  ○the location of the market in relation to the drilling site

  ○the political situation in the region where drilling would occur

  Paragraph 6: Moreover, getting petroleum out of the ground and from under the sea and to the consumer can create environmental problems anywhere along the line. Pipelines carrying oil can be broken by faults or landslides, causing serious oil spills. Spillage from huge oil-carrying cargo ships, called tankers, involved in collisions or accidental groundings (such as the one off Alaska in 1989) can create oil slicks at sea. Offshore platforms may also lose oil, creating oil slicks that drift ashore and foul the beaches, harming the environment. Sometimes, the ground at an oil field may subside as oil is removed. The Wilmington field near Long Beach, California, has subsided nine meters in 50 years; protective barriers have had to be built to prevent seawater from flooding the area. Finally, the refining and burning of petroleum and its products can cause air pollution. Advancing technology and strict laws, however, are helping control some of these adverse environmental effects.

  11.The word “foul” in the passage is closest in meaning to

  ○reach

  ○flood

  ○pollute

  ○alter

  12.In paragraph 6, the author’s primary purpose is to

  ○provide examples of how oil exploration can endanger the environment

  ○describe accidents that have occurred when oil activities were in progress

  ○give an analysis of the effects of oil spills on the environment

  ○explain how technology and legislation help reduce oil spills

  Paragraph 2: Continued sedimentation—the process of deposits’ settling on the sea bottom—buries the organic matter and subjects it to higher temperatures and pressures, which convert the organic matter to oil and gas. █As muddy sediments are pressed together, the gas and small droplets of oil may be squeezed out of the mud and may move into sandy layers nearby. █Over long periods of time (millions of years), accumulations of gas and oil can collect in the sandy layers. █Both oil and gas are less dense than water, so they generally tend to rise upward through water-saturated rock and sediment. █

  13.Look at the four squares [█] that indicate where the following sentence could be added to the passage.

  Unless something acts to halt this migration, these natural resources will eventually reach the surface.

  Where would the sentence best fit?

  14.Directions: An introductory sentence for a brief summary of the passage is provided below. Complete the summary by selecting the THREE answer choices that express the most important ideas in the passage. Some sentences do not belong in the summary because they express ideas that are not presented in the passage or are minor ideas in the passage. This question is worth 2 points.

  “Petroleum” is a broad term that includes both crude oil and natural gas.

  ●

  ●

  ●

  Answer choices

  ○Petroleum formation is the result of biological as well as chemical activity.

  ○The difficulty of finding adequate sources of oil on land has resulted in a greater number of offshore drilling sites.

  ○Petroleum extraction can have a negative impact on the environment.

  ○Petroleum tends to rise to the surface, since it is lower in density than water.

  ○Current methods of petroleum extraction enable oil producers to recover about half of the world’s petroleum reserves.

  ○Accidents involving oil tankers occur when tankers run into shore reefs or collide with other vessels.

  參考答案：

  1. ○2

  2. ○4

  3. ○1

  4. ○3

  5. ○1

  6. ○4

  7. ○1

  8. ○2

  9. ○2

  10. ○4

  11. ○3

  12. ○1

  13. ○4

  14. Petroleum formation is the…

  The difficulty of finding…

  Petroleum extraction can…

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