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  Characteristics of Roman Pottery

  The pottery of ancient Romans is remarkablein several ways. The high quality of Roman potteryis very easy to appreciate when handling actualpieces of tableware or indeed kitchenware andamphorae (the large jars used throughout the Mediterranean for the transport and storage ofliquids, such as wine and oil). However, it is impossible to do justice to Roman wares on thepage, even when words can be backed up by photographs and drawing. Most Roman pottery islight and smooth to touch and very tough, although, like all pottery, it shatters if dropped ona hard surface. It is generally made with carefully selected and purified clay, worked to thin-walled and standardized shapes on a fast wheel and fired in a kiln (pottery oven) capable ofensuring a consistent finish. With handmade pottery, inevitably there are slight differencesbetween individual vessels of the same design and occasional minor blemishes (flaws). Butwhat strikes the eye and the touch most immediately and most powerfully with Roman potteryis its consistent high quality.

  古羅馬的陶器在諸多方面成就驚人。當(dāng)把玩古羅馬陶制餐具或廚房用具和雙耳陶罐(遍及整個(gè)地中海地區(qū)用以運(yùn)輸或儲(chǔ)存酒或油之類液體的大型陶罐)時(shí)，人們對(duì)其良好的質(zhì)量贊不絕口。盡管有照片和畫像的記錄，卻無(wú)法輕易的對(duì)羅馬陶器做出公正評(píng)價(jià)。絕大部分羅馬陶器都很輕很光滑也很堅(jiān)韌，盡管，像所有陶器一樣，當(dāng)撞到堅(jiān)硬地面時(shí)也容易破碎。它們一般由精心篩選和凈化后的粘土在快速旋轉(zhuǎn)的圓盤上制成壁薄而形狀標(biāo)準(zhǔn)的坯子，然后放入陶器窯中燒結(jié)，并確保一氣呵成。由于是手工制作，同一型號(hào)的陶器難免有微小差別和瑕疵。但羅馬陶器讓人瞠目結(jié)舌的最直接最有力的是它那一以貫之的高質(zhì)量。

  This is not just an aesthetic consideration but also a practical one. These vessels aresolid (brittle, but not fragile), they are pleasant and easy to handle (being light andsmooth), and, with their hard and sometimes glossy (smooth and shiny) surfaces, they holdliquids well and are easy to wash. Furthermore, their regular and standardized shapes wouldhave made them simple to stack and store. When people today are shown a very ordinaryRoman pot and, in particular, are allowed to handle it, they often comment on how modernit looks and feels, and they need to be convinced of its true age.

  這不僅是審美的考慮也有實(shí)用之處。這些容器都很堅(jiān)硬(脆卻并不易碎)，很優(yōu)雅也很好用(質(zhì)輕而光滑)，其表面堅(jiān)硬而有時(shí)帶有光澤。它們很適合盛放液體也很易清潔。而且，它們形狀規(guī)則且標(biāo)準(zhǔn)，極易堆放儲(chǔ)藏。當(dāng)將這些陶器展示給今天的人們，并允許他們把玩時(shí)，他們常常認(rèn)為其形狀和手感如此現(xiàn)代以至于很難相信其實(shí)際年齡。

  As impressive as the quality of Roman pottery is its sheer massive quantity. Whenconsidering quantities, we would ideally like to have some estimates for overall productionfrom particular sites of pottery manufacture and for overall consumption at specificsettlements. Unfortunately, it is in the nature of the archaeological evidence, which is almostinvariable only a sample of what once existed, that such figures will always be elusive.However, no one who has ever worked in the field would question the abundance of Romanpottery, particularly in the Mediterranean region. This abundance is notable in Romansettlements (especially urban sites) where the labor that archaeologists have to put into thewashing and sorting of potsherds (fragments of pottery) constitutes a high proportion of thetotal work during the initial phases of excavation.

  和其高質(zhì)量一樣讓人印象深刻的是羅馬陶器的巨大的數(shù)量。當(dāng)確定數(shù)量時(shí)，我們常喜歡去評(píng)估某一陶器生產(chǎn)地點(diǎn)生產(chǎn)陶器的總量以及某地居民對(duì)陶器的消費(fèi)總量。不幸的是，考古證據(jù)本質(zhì)上只能是歷史存在的一個(gè)樣本，因而由此得到的數(shù)據(jù)并不可靠。但是，那些曾經(jīng)在現(xiàn)場(chǎng)工作過(guò)的人絕不會(huì)懷疑羅馬陶器的數(shù)量，尤其是在地中海地區(qū)。陶器數(shù)量的羅馬人聚集區(qū)(尤其是城市遺址)家喻戶曉。在那些遺址上考古學(xué)家們?cè)谕诰虻牡谝浑A段不得不花費(fèi)很大比例的勞動(dòng)力去清洗和整理陶器碎片。

  Only rarely can we derive any “real” quantities from deposits of broken pots. However,there is one exceptional dump, which does represent a very large part of the site’s totalhistory of consumption and for which an estimate of quantity has been produced. On the leftbank of the Tiber River in Rome, by one of the river ports of the ancient city, is a substantialhill some 50 meters high called Monte Testaccio. It is made up entirely of broken oil amphorae,mainly of the second and third centuries A.D. It has been estimated that Monte Testacciocontains the remains of some 53 million amphorae, in which around 6,000million liters of oilwere imported into the city from overseas, imports into imperial Rome were supported by thefull might of the state and were therefore quite exceptional—but the size of the operations atMonte Testaccio, and the productivity and complexity that lay behind them, nonethelesscannot fail to impress. This was a society with similarities to modern one—moving goods on agigantic scale, manufacturing high-quality containers to do so, and occasionally, as here,even discarding them on delivery.

  從陶罐碎片堆中我們很難推算出真正的數(shù)量。但也有例外。有一處遺址出土的陶器代表了其曾經(jīng)的陶器消費(fèi)的很大一部分，因此可以據(jù)此推測(cè)出其數(shù)量。羅馬第伯爾河左岸上一座古代城市碼頭的旁邊有一座約50米高的大山，叫做Monte Testaccio. 該山全部由公元二到三世紀(jì)的油罐碎片組成。據(jù)估計(jì)，Monte Testaccio山上約有5300萬(wàn)只油罐并由此從海外進(jìn)口了約6億升的油。向羅馬帝國(guó)的進(jìn)口由國(guó)家全力支持，因此也非常例外----但是Monte Testaccio的制作規(guī)模及其背后的生產(chǎn)力和復(fù)雜性卻絕對(duì)不容忽視。

  Roman pottery was transported not only in large quantities but also over substantialdistances. Many Roman pots, in particular amphorae and the fine wares designed for use attables, could travel hundreds of miles—all over the Mediterranean and also further afield. Butmaps that show the various spots where Roman pottery of a particular type has been foundtell only part of the story. What is more significant than any geographical spread is the accessthat different levels of society had to good-quality products. In all but the remotest regions ofthe empire, Roman pottery of a high standard is common at the sites of humble villages andisolated farmsteads

  羅馬陶器不僅運(yùn)輸數(shù)量龐大而且其運(yùn)輸距離遙遠(yuǎn)。很多羅馬陶罐，尤其是雙耳陶罐和桌上餐具可能被運(yùn)輸了幾百英里----遍及整個(gè)地中海乃至更遠(yuǎn)。但是顯示各種羅馬陶器出土地點(diǎn)的地圖只是故事的一部分。比地理上的廣闊分布更重要的是社會(huì)的不同階層都能夠使用這種高質(zhì)量的陶罐。在帝國(guó)的幾乎所有的偏遠(yuǎn)地區(qū)，高質(zhì)量的羅馬陶器在其最凋敝的村莊和偏遠(yuǎn)田野中都隨處可見(jiàn)。

  托福閱讀試題

  1.Paragraph 1 indicates which of the following about Roman pottery?

  A.Roman amphorae were of much higher quality overall than other Roman pottery.

  B.Roman pottery can best be appreciated when actual pieces are handled.

  C.Roman pottery declined slightly in quality when the use of fast wheels and kilns was introduced.

  D.Roman practical tableware spread more rapidly across the Mediterranean than amphorae did.

  1.對(duì)應(yīng)原文第二句。A原文并沒(méi)有對(duì)amphorae和pottery的比較。C原文提到了快速轉(zhuǎn)輪和燒窯的使用，但并沒(méi)說(shuō)因此陶器質(zhì)量就下降了。D提到了陶器在Mediterranean的廣泛使用，但是沒(méi)有種類間的比較。

  2.All of the following are mentioned in paragraph 1 as characteristics of Roman pottery EXCEPT

  A.It was usually made with high-quality clay.

  B.It generally did not weigh much.

  C.It did not break as easily as other ancient pottery.

  D.It sometimes had imperfections.

  2.只有C和原文的描寫沖突。

  3.According to paragraph 2, which of the following is NOT true of Roman vessels?

  A.They were good containers for liquids.

  B.Their shapes allowed for easy stacking and storing.

  C.They sometimes had shiny surfaces.

  D.Their true age is immediately apparent.

  3.四個(gè)選項(xiàng)分別對(duì)應(yīng)紅色標(biāo)記部分。D選項(xiàng)對(duì)應(yīng)的最后一句和原文矛盾，原文說(shuō)一眼看上去這個(gè)pot是非常現(xiàn)代化的。但實(shí)際很古老了。因此its true age并不明顯。D錯(cuò)誤。

  4.The author mentions the work of archaeologists in paragraph 3 in order to

  A.support the idea that pottery was produced in large quantities by the Romans.

  B.illustrate how hard it is for archaeologists to find complete pieces of Roman pottery.

  C.contrast archaeological sites in Roman urban areas with other sites in the Mediterranean.

  D.explain why the quantities of pottery found vary significantly from one site to another.

  4.這一段的主題就是第一句，強(qiáng)調(diào)了massive quantity。因此后面提到work of archaelogists也是為了支持這個(gè)主題。因此選A。

  5.The word "substantial" in the passage(paragraph 4)is closest in meaning to

  A.protected.

  B.man-made.

  C.large.

  D.famous.

  5.Substantial是大量的，實(shí)質(zhì)的等意。A是保護(hù)的;B是人工的;D是著名的。只有C是大的。所以選擇C。而且這里也描述了50 meters high也是描述了它的大小。所以應(yīng)選擇與大小有關(guān)的。

  6.According to paragraph 4, Monte Testaccio is particularly important forarchaeologists because archaeologists were able to

  A.conclude how amphorae manufacturing increased rapidly after the second century A.D..

  B.find the locations where most of the amphorae in the Roman Empire were produced.

  C.obtain relatively accurate calculations of the quantities of amphorae used over time in that place.

  D.discover that the Roman state had supported amphorae production.

  6.這里介紹Monte Testaccil是在支持本段的論點(diǎn)。回到原文這段的第一句可以看到原文說(shuō)"很難通過(guò)broken pot來(lái)確定那個(gè)時(shí)期的pot產(chǎn)量，而Monte Testaccil確實(shí)個(gè)例外。所以也就是說(shuō)可以通過(guò)這個(gè)dump遺址得到當(dāng)時(shí)的quantities。選C

  7.The word "entirely" in the passage(paragraph 4)is closest in meaning to

  A.apparently.

  B.completely.

  C.basically.

  D.mostly.

  7.Entirely是完全的，整個(gè)的。A是明顯的，B是完全的，C是基本的，D是大部分的。這里B最符合。

  8.Paragraph 4 indicates which of the following about the port on the Tiber River near Monte Testaccio?

  A.It was built around the third century A.D..

  B.It was close to areas where large quantities of oil were produced.

  C.It was in use only for a very short period of time.

  D.It had impressive level of commercial activity.

  8.根據(jù)Tiber River定位，看到后面的描述說(shuō)around 6000 million liters of oil were imported into city form oversea。那么也就是說(shuō)當(dāng)時(shí)的進(jìn)出口貿(mào)易非常繁華。對(duì)應(yīng)答案D。

  9.The statement in paragraph 4 that amphorae delivered to the port near Monte Testaccio were occasionally discarded support which of the following?

  A.Traders at the port were often careless.

  B.The quality of the amphorae used at the port was not very good.

  C.The scale of the trade made it possible to waste quality amphorae sometimes.

  D.The importing of oil from overseas gradually declined, reducing the need for pottery containers.

  9.根據(jù)原文discarded定位到原文最后一句。如同現(xiàn)代工業(yè)社會(huì)一樣，大量生產(chǎn)和需求，但是背后的生產(chǎn)力并不能滿足之類的。所以在運(yùn)送的時(shí)候也是如此。有時(shí)大量運(yùn)送就難免會(huì)有打碎的。因此選擇C。A原文沒(méi)提到;B原文也沒(méi)說(shuō)，而且前文一直在說(shuō)pot都是high quality的。D這里也沒(méi)說(shuō)到oil和pottery的關(guān)系。

  10.The statement that "maps show the various spots where Roman pottery of aparticular type has been found tell only part of the story" makes the point that

  A.maps indicate where specific pottery styles have been found, but they do not indicate where these styles originated.

  B.maps show the geographical spread of Roman pottery but not the people who had access to it.

  C.maps do not usually include pottery styles found in the remotest regions the Roman Empire.

  D.archaeologist studying Roman pottery need to use a range of techniques in their investigations.

  10.這里說(shuō)Map只是tell part of the story，那么證明能得到roman pottery的不僅是map描畫的范圍，應(yīng)該會(huì)有更大的范圍;從而來(lái)支持這一段的中心句，over substantial distances。A選項(xiàng)錯(cuò)誤，styles是從羅馬來(lái)的。C，D跟原文也沒(méi)關(guān)系。而B符合，說(shuō)maps在一定程度上說(shuō)明了羅馬陶器的地理散播，但并不是所有能得到陶器的人。

  11.The word "humble" in the passage is closest in meaning to

  A.rural.

  B.distant.

  C.ancient.

  D.modest.

  11.Humble謙虛的，簡(jiǎn)陋的。也可以通過(guò)and的并列形式推斷詞義，后面是isolated，與世隔絕的，那么也可以引申為，偏遠(yuǎn)的，落后的。所以humble應(yīng)該是相近的意思。此處A是干擾項(xiàng)，鄉(xiāng)村的，田園的。但是少了簡(jiǎn)陋那層意思。用D最合適。

  12.The word "particular" in the passage is closest in meaning to

  A.specific.

  B.common.

  C.ancient.

  D.superior.

  12.Particular特別的，特指的。A是特別的，符合原文意思。這里也說(shuō)得是什么的類型。可以依照上文推斷。B是常見(jiàn)的，C是原始的，D是先進(jìn)的。

  13. Look at the four squares [■] that indicate where the following sentence could be added to the passage. Where would the sentence best fit? That is because residents of a city did not usually discard used pottery at the same site over a long period of time.

  ■【A】Only rarely can we derive any "real" quantities from deposits of brokenpots. ■【B】However, there is one exceptional dump, which does represent a very large part of the site's total history of consumption and for which an estimate of quantity has been produced. ■【C】On the left bank of the Tiber River in Rome, by one of the river ports of the ancient city, is a substantial hill some 50 meters high called Monte Testaccio. ■【D】It is made up entirely of broken oil amphorae, mainly of the second and third centuries A.D. It has been estimated that Monte Testaccio contains the remains of some 53 million amphorae, in which around 6,000 million liters of oil were imported into the city from overseas,imports into imperial Rome were supported by the full might of the state and were therefore quite exceptional- but the size of the operations at Monte Testaccio, and the productivity and complexity that lay behind them,nonetheless cannot fail to impress. This was a society with similarities to modernone-moving goods on a gigantic scal, manufacturing high-quality containers to do so, and occasionally, as here, even discarding them on delivery.

  13.這里要插入的句子中出現(xiàn)了that is because，那么that肯定是指代了前文的某個(gè)現(xiàn)象，然后用要插入的這句話進(jìn)行解釋。句子第一句說(shuō)，很少有遺址可以表明這種陶器的產(chǎn)量，第二局說(shuō)但是有一個(gè)例外。那么應(yīng)該是先解釋原因，再說(shuō)例外的情況。That指代的就是第一句話描述的現(xiàn)象。因此插入第二個(gè)空。

  14. Directions: An introductory sentence for a brief summary of the passage is provided below. Complete the summary by selecting the THREE answer choices that express the most important ideas in the passage. Some sentences do not belong in the summary because they express ideas that are not presented in the passage or are minor ideas in the passage. This question is worth 2 points.

  The pottery of the ancient RomanEmpire is remarkable.

  A.Roman pottery is considered to be practical and of consistently high quality.

  B.Roman pottery was transported over long distances, and different levels of society had access to quality pottery.

  C.Archaeologists looking for the remains of Roman pottery concentrate on urban sites because that is where the oldest pieces of kitchenware and amphorae have been found.

  D.Even though the exact quantity of pottery produced by the Romans is almost impossible to calculate, it is certain that is was produced in large quantities.

  E.People are not familiar with the whole range of pottery of Romans created because most of the available pieces represent only a limited number of styles and shapes.

  F.It is still unclear to archaeologists what the role of the Roman state in the commercial success of Roman pottery was.

  14.A、B正確，對(duì)應(yīng)文章第一段和第二段，第一段重點(diǎn)說(shuō)high quality，第二段說(shuō)不僅是審美考慮也是practical的。E正確，對(duì)于原文最后一段。

 Competition

  When several individuals of the same species or of several different species depend on the same limited resource, a situation may arise that is referred to as competition. The existence of competition has been long known to naturalists; its effects were described by Darwin in considerable detail. Competition among individuals of the same species (intraspecies competition), one of the major mechanisms of natural selection, is the concern of evolutionary biology. Competition among the individuals of different species (interspecies competition) is a major concern of ecology. It is one of the factors controlling the size of competing populations, and extreme cases it may lead to the extinction of one of the competing species. This was described by Darwin for indigenous New Zealand species of animals and plants, which died out when competing species from Europe were introduced.

  當(dāng)同一物種的不同個(gè)體或不同的物種都依靠同一有限資源時(shí)，這種情況往往會(huì)引發(fā)成所謂的競(jìng)爭(zhēng)。競(jìng)爭(zhēng)的存在已為生物學(xué)家們所熟知，其結(jié)果也已被達(dá)爾文詳盡敘述過(guò)。同一物種不同個(gè)體之間的競(jìng)爭(zhēng)(種內(nèi)競(jìng)爭(zhēng))，作為自然選擇的一個(gè)主要原理，現(xiàn)在屬于進(jìn)化生物學(xué)。不同物種個(gè)體之間的競(jìng)爭(zhēng)(種間競(jìng)爭(zhēng))是生態(tài)學(xué)的主要部分。它是控制有競(jìng)爭(zhēng)關(guān)系的種群數(shù)量的一個(gè)因素，而其極端情況可能導(dǎo)致競(jìng)爭(zhēng)的一方滅絕。達(dá)爾文在描述新西蘭本土動(dòng)植物物種在與引進(jìn)的歐洲物種的競(jìng)爭(zhēng)中滅絕時(shí)講到該情況。

  No serious competition exists when the major needed resource is in superabundant supply, as in most cases of the coexistence of herbivores (plant eaters). Furthermore, most species do not depend entirely on a single resource, if the major resource for a species becomes scarce, the species can usually shift to alternative resources. If more than one species is competing for a scarce resource, the competing species usually switch to different alternative resources. Competition is usually most severe among close relatives with similar demands on the environment. But it may also occur among totally unrelated forms that compete for the same resource, such as seed-eating rodents and ants. The effects of such competition are graphically demonstrated when all the animals or all the plants in an ecosystem come into competition, as happened 2 million years ago at the end of Pliocene, when North and South America became joined by the Isthmus of Panama. North and South American species migrating across the Isthmus now came into competition with each other. The result was the extermination of a large fraction of the South American mammals, which were apparently unable to withstand the competition from invading North American species—although added predation was also an important factor.

  當(dāng)主要需求的資源能充分供給時(shí)，競(jìng)爭(zhēng)就不會(huì)很激烈，正如很多情況下植食動(dòng)物都能夠共存。而且絕大部分物種并不只依靠一種資源，當(dāng)某物種的主要資源匱乏時(shí)，它們常轉(zhuǎn)向其它候選資源。如果多個(gè)物種競(jìng)爭(zhēng)同一稀缺資源，他們常會(huì)轉(zhuǎn)向不同的候選資源。近親之間的競(jìng)爭(zhēng)往往最激烈，因?yàn)樗麄儗?duì)環(huán)境有相似需求。但激烈競(jìng)爭(zhēng)也可能發(fā)生在毫不相關(guān)卻需要同一資源的物種之間，例如吃種子的嚙齒動(dòng)物和螞蟻。當(dāng)一個(gè)生態(tài)系統(tǒng)中的所有動(dòng)植物都參與到競(jìng)爭(zhēng)中來(lái)時(shí)競(jìng)爭(zhēng)的影響將表現(xiàn)得淋漓盡致，比如在兩百萬(wàn)年前上新世末期當(dāng)南、北美洲在巴拿馬地峽處聚攏時(shí)所發(fā)生的一切。南、北美洲的物種可以穿越地峽而相互競(jìng)爭(zhēng)。結(jié)果是大量南美洲哺乳動(dòng)物因抵抗不了來(lái)自北美洲物種的競(jìng)爭(zhēng)而滅絕----盡管過(guò)度捕殺也是一個(gè)很重要的因素。

  To what extent competition determines the composition of a community and the density of particular species has been the source of considerable controversy. The problem is that competition ordinarily cannot be observed directly but must be inferred from the spread or increase of one species and the concurrent reduction or disappearance of another species. The Russian biologist G. F. Gause performed numerous two-species experiments in the laboratory, in which one of the species became extinct when only a single kind of resource was available. On the basis of these experiments and of field observations, the so-called law of competitive exclusion was formulated, according to which no two species can occupy the same niche. Numerous seeming exceptions to this law have since been found, but they can usually be explained as cases in which the two species, even though competing for a major joint resource, did not really occupy exactly the same niche.

  競(jìng)爭(zhēng)在多大程度上決定群落的組成和某特定物種的密度一直備受爭(zhēng)議。問(wèn)題是競(jìng)爭(zhēng)通常無(wú)法直接觀察得到而必須通過(guò)某一物種的擴(kuò)張或增加而另外一種物種同時(shí)減少或消失的對(duì)比中推測(cè)出來(lái)。俄羅斯生物學(xué)家G. F. Gause進(jìn)行了大量的兩物種的室內(nèi)實(shí)驗(yàn)，結(jié)果表明當(dāng)只提供一種資源時(shí)其中一個(gè)物種將會(huì)滅絕。基于以上實(shí)驗(yàn)和實(shí)地觀察，所謂的競(jìng)爭(zhēng)滅絕法則是成立的，因?yàn)閮蓚€(gè)物種不可能同時(shí)完全占有同一有限資源。不過(guò)也發(fā)現(xiàn)了很多例外，但這些情況下兩個(gè)物種，盡管會(huì)爭(zhēng)奪某一主要資源，但它們爭(zhēng)奪的資源不完全相同。

  Competition among species is of considerable evolutionary importance. The physical structure of species competing for resources in the same ecological niche tends to gradually evolve in ways that allow them to occupy different niches. Competing species also tend to change their ranges so that their territories no longer overlap. The evolutionary effect of competition on species has been referred to as “species selection”; however, this description is potentially misleading. Only the individuals of a species are subject to the pressures of natural selection. The effect on the well-being and existence of a species is just the result of the effects of selection on all the individuals of the species. Thus species selection is actually a result of individual selection.

  物種間的競(jìng)爭(zhēng)對(duì)進(jìn)化至關(guān)重要。爭(zhēng)奪同一生態(tài)資源的物種趨向于朝著依賴不同資源的方向進(jìn)化。相互競(jìng)爭(zhēng)的物種會(huì)逐漸改變他們的活動(dòng)范圍使其領(lǐng)地不再重疊。競(jìng)爭(zhēng)對(duì)進(jìn)化的影響稱為“物種選擇”，但這一描述有很大誤導(dǎo)性。只有某一物種中的個(gè)體才能面臨自然選擇的壓力。某一物種的繁盛或生存正是其所有個(gè)體自然選擇的結(jié)果。因此物種選擇實(shí)際上是個(gè)體選擇的結(jié)果。

  Competition may occur for any needed resource. In the case of animals it is usually food; in the case of forest plants it may be light; in the case of substrate inhabitants it may be space, as in many shallow-water bottom-dwelling marine organisms. Indeed, it may be for any of the factors, physical as well as biotic, that are essential for organisms. Competition is usually the more severe the denser the population. Together with predation, it is the most important density-dependent factor in regulating population growth.

  任何必須的資源都可能引發(fā)競(jìng)爭(zhēng)。這種資源對(duì)動(dòng)物而言常是食物，對(duì)森林植物而言可能是陽(yáng)光，對(duì)地面物種來(lái)說(shuō)可能是空間，比如很多生活在淺海海床上生物。實(shí)際上，競(jìng)爭(zhēng)對(duì)象可能是生物所必需的任何生物的或非生物的因素。通常生物密度越大，競(jìng)爭(zhēng)越激烈。和捕殺一起，競(jìng)爭(zhēng)是與生物密度相關(guān)的調(diào)控生物密度增長(zhǎng)的重要因素。

  托福閱讀試題

  1.The phrase "mechanisms of natural selection"in the passage(paragraph 1)is closest inmeaning to

  A.types of natural selection.

  B.dangers of natural selection.

  C.problems natural selection solves.

  D.ways natural selection works.

  1.Mechanism本身是機(jī)制，原理的意思。從原文也可以推斷出來(lái)。我們都知道進(jìn)化是由于"物競(jìng)天擇"的原因，原文這一句就是這個(gè)意思。因此這道題選擇D。

  2.According to paragraph 1, what is one effect of competition among individuals ofdifferent species?

  A.It results in the eventual elimination of the resource for which they are competing.

  B.It leads to competition among individuals of the same species.

  C.It encourages new species to immigrate to an area.

  D.It controls the number of individuals in the competing populations.

  2.通過(guò)competition among individuals of differentspecies定位到紅色標(biāo)注句子，但這句并沒(méi)提到任何一個(gè)選項(xiàng)，繼續(xù)往后看，下一句的主語(yǔ)是代詞it，指代intraspecies competition，因此后面也是對(duì)物種間競(jìng)爭(zhēng)的描述。而這一句提到了是控制population的因素，對(duì)應(yīng)了選項(xiàng)D。

  3.The word "indigenous" in the passage(paragraph 1)is closest in meaning to

  A.native.

  B.rate.

  C.most.

  D.numerous.

  3.Indigenous是本土的意思=A選項(xiàng)。B是稀少的，C是大部分的，D是無(wú)數(shù)的。 這個(gè)詞義也可以從原文推斷。原文最后半句，which引導(dǎo)的從句說(shuō)由于歐洲引進(jìn)的種族和which指代的東西競(jìng)爭(zhēng)，是which滅絕了。往前看which引導(dǎo)的是"indigenous"新西蘭動(dòng)植物。可以推測(cè)A選項(xiàng)代入最合適。

  4.In paragraph 1, why does the author mention what happened in New Zealand?

  A.To indicate that Darwin understood the importance of competition.

  B.To illustrate that competition can lead to the extinction of species.

  C.To identify where the idea of competition among species first arose.

  D.To argue against the idea that the process of selection is a natural occurrence.

  4.這一段提到種族間競(jìng)爭(zhēng)時(shí)的論點(diǎn)是可以控制不同種族的數(shù)量。然后舉出了新西蘭動(dòng)植物作為了例子，而例子都是用來(lái)證明和支持觀點(diǎn)的。因此選擇B選項(xiàng)。

  5.According to paragraph 2, competition is not usually a significant factor among twocoexisting species when

  A.one of the species has only recently moved into the territory of the other.

  B.the species are closely related to each other.

  C.the population of one species is much larger than that of the other.

  D.both of the species are herbivores.

  5.根據(jù)coexisting species定位到原文處，前文就是原因，因?yàn)橘Y源供給充足。而coexistence ofherbivores是給出的例證，coexistence herbivores間沒(méi)有激烈競(jìng)爭(zhēng)是因?yàn)樗鼈兌汲圆荩葙Y源是非常充足的。理想答案是當(dāng)資源充足時(shí)，競(jìng)爭(zhēng)不會(huì)成為重要的影響因素。但原文沒(méi)有，唯一合適的選擇就是D，也就是原文提到的例證。

  6.The word "graphically" in the passage(paragraph 2)is closest in meaning to

  A.vividly.

  B.frequently.

  C.broadly.

  D.typically.

  6.Graph是圖畫的意思，graphically也就是用圖形地，可以推出生動(dòng)地的意思。因此選擇A. vividly. B選項(xiàng)是頻繁地，C是廣泛地，D是特別地。都不符合。

  7.In paragraph 2, why does the author talk about what happened as a result of Northand South America becoming joined at the Isthmus of Panama?

  A.To make the point that predation can have as much effect on species survival ascompetition does.

  B.To show how the ability to switch to an alternative resource can give a species acompetitive advantage.

  C.To account for the current species composition of North and South America.

  D.To provide an example of the serious effects of competition between unrelated species.

  7.引出南北美洲物種競(jìng)爭(zhēng)結(jié)果的主句是"The effects of such competition are graphicallydemonstrated…"由此推斷，南北美洲動(dòng)物競(jìng)爭(zhēng)的結(jié)果就是為了說(shuō)明競(jìng)爭(zhēng)的Effects。因此選擇D。A原文提到了，在最后的半句，但是前面的although說(shuō)明了這不是主要觀點(diǎn)。

  8.Paragraph 3 supports the idea that Gause's experiments were important becausethey

  A.provided a situation in which competition could be removed from the interaction betweentwo species.

  B.showed that previous ideas about the extent to which competition determines thecomposition of a community were completely mistaken.

  C.helped establish that competition will remove all but one species from any givenecological niche.

  D.offered evidence that competition between species is minimal when there is anoverabundance of a single food source.

  8.通過(guò)Gause's experiments定位，文章在描述完實(shí)驗(yàn)內(nèi)容后，說(shuō)on the basis of these experiment，那么說(shuō)明后面就是實(shí)驗(yàn)得到的結(jié)論。也就是law of competitive exclusion. 因此選擇C。

  9.Which of the sentences below best expresses the essential information inthehighlighted sentence in the passage(paragraph 3)? Incorrect choices change themeaningin important ways or leave out essential information.

  A.Apparent exceptions to this law usually involves cases in which two species compete for thesame major resource but occupy slightly different niches.

  B.Although it may appear that two species always have different niches, many exceptions showthat species compete with each other.

  C.Cases in which two species not only compete for a shared resource but also occupy similarniches are considered exceptions to this law.

  D.Cases in which the two species do not occupy that same niche yet still compete for thesame resource are believed to be exceptions to this law.

  9.原文中句子的主干是 seeming exceptions have been found，然后存在了轉(zhuǎn)折邏輯之后說(shuō)這種例外是可以被解釋的。因此只有A符合。B，C，D都在一定程度上改變了原句的意思。

  10.According to paragraph 4, how does competition affect evolution?

  A.It results in the evolution of physical structures that allow the species to compete witheach other more effectively.

  B.It results I the evolutionary extinction of all but one of the competing species.

  C.It results in the competing species evolving in such a way that they no longer compete forthe same resources.

  D.It results in the competing species evolving to become so much like each other thatcompetition between them eventually disappears.

  10.第一句就提到了問(wèn)題所問(wèn)的內(nèi)容，說(shuō)competition具有evolutionary importance。后面應(yīng)該就是具體的解釋。往后看說(shuō)同一小生態(tài)環(huán)境中的競(jìng)爭(zhēng)物種tend to….那么tend to的內(nèi)容就是答案。對(duì)應(yīng)的就是C，說(shuō)使得其領(lǐng)地不再重疊，也就是不再同一區(qū)域內(nèi)進(jìn)行資源競(jìng)爭(zhēng)了。

  11.According to paragraph 4, "species selection" is a misleading term because it

  A.overemphasizes the role of selection pressure in species extinction.

  B.suggests that selection pressures directly influence whole species.

  C.does not make a distinction between species extinction and species evolution.

  D.suggests that extinction always results whenever there is a competition.

  11.通過(guò)species selection定位到標(biāo)注處，后面出現(xiàn)了轉(zhuǎn)折，說(shuō)這個(gè)描寫是misleading的。往后肯定就會(huì)解釋原因。原文說(shuō)natural selection其實(shí)是直接作用在individual上的，而不是species上。所以錯(cuò)誤。對(duì)應(yīng)了B選項(xiàng)，"species selection 暗示了選擇壓力是直接作用于整個(gè)物種上的。"

  12.The word "regulating" in the passage(paragraph 5)is closest in meaning to

  A.controlling.

  B.explaining.

  C.observing.

  D.stopping.

  12.最后一句是說(shuō)它是最重要的在怎么樣數(shù)量增長(zhǎng)中，影響密度的因素。很容易理解是控制。因此選A。B是解釋，C是觀察，D是停止。

  13. Look at the four squares [■] that indicate where the following sentence could beadded to the passage.Where would the sentence best fit? That is, as the density of apopulation increases, competition has a greater impact and leads to greater mortality.

  Competition may occur for any needed resource. ■【A】In the case of animals it is usually food;in the case of forest plants it may be light; in the case of substrate inhabitants it may be space,as in many shallow-waterbottom-dwelling marine organisms. ■【B】Indeed, it may be forany of the factors,physical as well as biotic, that are essential for organisms. ■【C】Competition isusually the more severe the denser the population. ■【D】Togetherwith predation, itis the most important density-dependent factor in regulating populationgrowth.

  13.要插入的句子開(kāi)頭的that 一定是指代前文的一句話。并且跟density有關(guān)。而原文第一次出現(xiàn)density有關(guān)的詞是在D選項(xiàng)前的一句話"denser"，插入后發(fā)現(xiàn)，插入的就是在進(jìn)一步說(shuō)明D前的那一句。而后文又補(bǔ)充了predation和competition對(duì)density的共同作用，邏輯關(guān)系吻合，意思通順。

  14. Directions: An introductory sentence for a brief summary of the passage isprovided below. Complete the summary by selecting the THREE answer choices thatexpress the most important ideas in the passage. Some sentences do not belong inthe summary because they express ideas that are not presented in the passage or areminor ideas in the passage. This question is worth 2 points.

  When necessary resources are limited, competition can occur among individuals of the samespecies or of different species.

  A.Competition can eliminate a species, but since most species do not depend on a singleresource, competition is often reduced by switching to alternative resources.

  B.Investigation of the ecological role of competition is difficult because ordinarily thecompetition cannot be observed directly and must be inferred from its presumed effects.

  C.Competition between a pair of species tends to lessen over time because the species tendto evolve to occupy different ecological niches and ranges.

  D.Competition between individual of the same species is usually for food whereas competitionbetween species is usually for habitat.

  E.Experiments and field observation have established that competition between species isstrong enough to prevent two species from occupying the same ecological niche.

  F.Competition is usually strongest when the density of the competing populations is the same.

  14.A正確，對(duì)應(yīng)原文第二段第二，三句。B原文并沒(méi)有這樣的意思，一直在說(shuō)是在競(jìng)爭(zhēng)resource，不選。C后半句在原文中提到了，但s是并沒(méi)有與前半句的這樣的因果關(guān)系，不選。D正確，對(duì)應(yīng)原文第3段的on thebasis of那一句。E正確，對(duì)應(yīng)原文第四段的第二句。

  The History of Waterpower

  Moving water was one of the earliest energysources to be harnessed to reduce the workload ofpeople and animals. No one knows exactly when thewaterwheel was invented, but irrigation systemsexisted at least 5,000 years ago, and it seems probable that the earliest waterpower device wasthe noria, a waterwheel that raised water for irrigation in attached jars. The device appears tohave evolved no later than the fifth century B.C., perhaps independently in different regions ofthe Middle and Far East.

  流水是人類最早利用的能量來(lái)源，以減少人和牲畜的工作負(fù)擔(dān)。無(wú)法知曉水輪是什么時(shí)候發(fā)明的，但灌溉系統(tǒng)至少在五千年前就已存在。最早的水力設(shè)施很可能是戽水車，一種通過(guò)附帶的瓦罐將水舉起以便灌溉的水輪。這種設(shè)備在公元前十五世紀(jì)就可能獨(dú)立的出現(xiàn)在中東和遠(yuǎn)東的一些地區(qū)了。

  The earliest waterpower mills were probably vertical-axis mills for grinding corn, knownas Norse or Greek mills, which seem to have appeared during the first or second century B.C. inthe Middle East and a few centuries later in Scandinavia. In the following centuries, increasinglysophisticated waterpower mills were built throughout the Roman Empire and beyond itsboundaries in the Middle East and northern Europe. In England, the Saxons are thought to haveused both horizontal and vertical-axis wheels. The first documented English mill was in theeighth century, but three centuries later about 5,000 were recorded, suggesting that everysettlement of any size had its mill.

  最早用于研磨谷物的水力磨可能都是垂直軸的，比如可能在公元前一到二世紀(jì)出現(xiàn)在中東的希臘磨以及幾個(gè)世紀(jì)之后出現(xiàn)在斯堪的納維亞的斯堪的納維亞磨。后來(lái)的幾個(gè)世紀(jì)里，更加先進(jìn)的水磨在整個(gè)羅馬帝國(guó)及其邊界以外的中東和北歐各地興建起來(lái)。在英國(guó)，撒克遜人可能既有水平軸的也有垂直軸的水磨。有記錄的最早的英國(guó)磨出現(xiàn)在八世紀(jì)，但三百年后大約有5000口水磨記錄再案，也就是說(shuō)幾乎每一處居民聚集地，無(wú)論規(guī)模大小如何都有自己的水磨。

  Raising water and grinding corn were by no means the only uses of the waterpower mill,and during the following centuries, the applications of waterpower kept pace with thedeveloping technologies of mining, iron working, paper making, and the wool and cottonindustries. Water was the main source of mechanical power, and by the end of theseventeenth century, England alone is thought to have had some 20,000 working mill. Therewas much debate on the relative efficiencies of different types of waterwheels. The period fromabout 1650 until 1800 saw some excellent scientific and technical investigations of differentdesigns. They revealed output powers ranging from about 1 horsepower to perhaps 60 for thelargest wheels and confirmed that for maximum efficiency, the water should pass across theblades as smoothly as possible and fall away with minimum speed, having given up almost allof its kinetic energy. (They also proved that, in principle, the overshot wheel, a type ofwheel in which an overhead streamof water powers the wheel, should win the efficiencycompetition.)

  舉升水和研磨谷物絕不是水力磨的唯一用途，在后來(lái)幾個(gè)世紀(jì)中，對(duì)水力的利用與采礦、煉鐵、造紙以及棉毛紡織工業(yè)的技術(shù)進(jìn)步同步。水力是機(jī)械能的主要來(lái)源，在十七世紀(jì)末，光英國(guó)就有約兩萬(wàn)座水磨。不類型水輪的效率的高低向來(lái)爭(zhēng)議很多。從1650到1800年間，人們?cè)O(shè)計(jì)了一些在科學(xué)和技術(shù)上都很先進(jìn)的水輪。它們的輸出功率從1馬力到最大的60馬力，并且人們確信要想產(chǎn)生最高效率，水應(yīng)該從葉輪上盡可能光滑的流過(guò)，并以最小的速度落下，以便輸出其幾乎所有動(dòng)能。(已經(jīng)證明從原則上，上射水輪，一種利用從頂部?jī)A瀉的水流驅(qū)動(dòng)葉輪的水輪，的效率最高。)

  But then steam power entered the scene, putting the whole future of waterpower indoubt. An energy analyst writing in the year 1800 would have painted a very pessimisticpicture of the future for waterpower. The coal-fired steam engine was taking over, and thewaterwheel was fast becoming obsolete. However, like many later experts, this one would havesuffered from an inability to see into the future. A century later the picture was completelydifferent: by then, the world had an electric industry, and a quarter of its generating capacitywas water powered.

  但當(dāng)蒸汽動(dòng)力進(jìn)入歷史舞臺(tái)，水力的前途就備受懷疑了。一位能源分析者在1800年寫的一篇論文給水力的前途鋪上了一層悲觀的色調(diào)。燃煤蒸汽動(dòng)力正在普及，而水輪則被迅速遺棄。然而，正如后來(lái)很多專家所言，這位分析者對(duì)未來(lái)過(guò)于短視。一個(gè)世紀(jì)之后，情況完全不同：那時(shí)世界已經(jīng)有了電力工業(yè)，而四分之一的發(fā)電能力都來(lái)自水力。

  The growth of the electric-power industry was the result of a remarkable series ofscientific discoveries and development in electrotechnology during the nineteenth century, butsignificant changes in what we might now call hydro (water) technology also played their part.In 1832, the year of Michael Faraday’s discovery that a changing magnetic field produces anelectric field, a young French engineer patented a new and more efficient waterwheel. Hisname was Nenoit Fourneyron, and his device was the first successful water turbine. (The wordturbine comes from the Latin turbo: something that spins). The waterwheel, unaltered fornearly 2,000 years, had finally been superseded.

  十九世紀(jì)電力工業(yè)的崛起源自一系列的科學(xué)發(fā)現(xiàn)和電工業(yè)的發(fā)展，但我們現(xiàn)在目睹的水力技術(shù)的重大進(jìn)步也發(fā)揮了重要作用。在1832年，當(dāng)Michael Faraday發(fā)現(xiàn)了變化的磁場(chǎng)能夠產(chǎn)生電場(chǎng)理論時(shí)，一位年輕的法國(guó)工程師申請(qǐng)了一種新型的更有效率的水輪專利。他的名字叫Nenoit Fourneyron，而他的設(shè)備是最早的成功的水力渦輪。水輪在保持了近2000年的原始模樣后終于被超越了。

  Half a century of development was needed before Faraday’s discoveries in electricity weretranslated into full-scale power stations. In 1881 the Godalming power station in Surrey,England, on the banks of the Wey River, created the world’s first public electricity supply. Thepower source of this most modern technology was a traditional waterwheel. Unfortunately thisearly plant experienced the problem common to many forms of renewable energy: the flow inthe Wey River was unreliable, and the waterwheel was soon replaced by a steam engine.

  在半個(gè)世紀(jì)里的時(shí)間里，法拉第的電學(xué)理論終于發(fā)展成了設(shè)施齊備的發(fā)電廠。1881年在英國(guó)的薩里，在衛(wèi)河河畔建成了世界上第一座公用水力發(fā)電站----Godalming 發(fā)電站。這種現(xiàn)代化的發(fā)電站所用的仍是傳統(tǒng)的水輪。不幸的是，這座早起的水力發(fā)電站也遭受了所有可再生能源的共同弊端：衛(wèi)河的水流極不穩(wěn)定，而水輪很快被蒸汽機(jī)代替了。

  From this primitive start, the electric industry grew during the final 20 years of thenineteenth century at a rate seldom if ever exceeded by any technology. The capacity ofindividual power stations, many of them hydro plants, rose from a few kilowatts to over amegawatt in less than a decade.

  從這次原始的嘗試開(kāi)始，電工業(yè)在十九世紀(jì)最后的二十年中以比任何其它技術(shù)都快得多的速度發(fā)展起來(lái)。單個(gè)發(fā)電站，很多都是水力發(fā)電站，的發(fā)電能力從幾千瓦在不到十年時(shí)間內(nèi)就發(fā)展到了幾兆瓦。

  托福閱讀試題

  1.The word "harnessed" in thepassage(paragraph 1)is closest in meaning to

  A.known.

  B.depended on.

  C.recognized.

  D.utilized.

  1.這個(gè)單詞后面出現(xiàn)了to，表目的或作用，整句話的意思就是水資源被用于減輕人和動(dòng)物的勞動(dòng)。所以很容易推出文中單詞harnessed是使用的意思，因此選擇D。

  2.In paragraph 1, uncertainty is expressed about all of the following aspects of theearly development of waterpower EXCEPT

  A.when exactly the very first waterpower devices were invented.

  B.when exactly the very first waterpower devices were developed.

  C.whether water was one of the earliest sources of power to be used by humans.

  D.whether the very earliest waterpower devices arose independently.

  2.這個(gè)題可以看著選項(xiàng)到原文照對(duì)應(yīng)點(diǎn)，A對(duì)應(yīng)原文第二句，正確，不選。B對(duì)應(yīng)雖然沒(méi)有直接在原文中提到，但是也可以有這層意思，可以作為待定選項(xiàng)。但看到C之后就可以排除B了，因?yàn)镃和原文第一句有了直接沖突，因此選擇C。D對(duì)應(yīng)這段的最后一句(出現(xiàn)了perhaps)。

  3.According to paragraph 2, what was true of the waterpower mills built throughoutthe Roman Empire?

  A.Most had horizontal-axis wheels.

  B.Their design was based on mills that had long been used in Scandinavia.

  C.Their design was more popular beyond the Empire's boundaries than it was within theEmpire.

  D.They are more advanced than the mills used in the Middle East at an earlier time.

  3.根據(jù)Throughout the roman empire定位到原文紅色標(biāo)注位置，對(duì)于waterpower mill的修飾是increasingly sophisticated也就是更復(fù)雜，更先進(jìn)。因此選擇D。

  4.The phrase "the application of waterpower" in the passage (paragraph 3)is closestin meaning to

  A.the uses to which waterpower was put.

  B.the improvement made to waterpower.

  C.the method by which waterpower was supplied.

  D.the source of waterpower available.

  4.這里的application指的是水力資源的應(yīng)用，也就是作用。因此選擇A水利的用處。

  5.According to paragraph 4, which of the following was discovered as a result ofscientific and technical investigations of waterpower conducted between 1650 and1800?

  A.Some types of small waterwheel can produce as much horsepower as the very largestwheels.

  B.Waterwheels operate more efficiently when water falls away from their blades slowly thanwhen water falls away quickly.

  C.Waterwheel efficiency can be improved by increasing the amount of kinetic energy watercontains as it passes over a waterwheel's blades.

  D.Unlike other types of waterwheels, the overshot wheel is capable of producing more than 60horsepower units of energy.

  5.通過(guò)scientific and technical investigation定位到紅色標(biāo)注部分，后面幾句就是調(diào)查的結(jié)果了，原文說(shuō)輸出的功率從1-60馬力不等，水流越smooth，下落越慢，效率就越高。英雌，A選項(xiàng)，原文沒(méi)提到。B選項(xiàng)正確。C. water contain的動(dòng)能并不能改變，而是要盡可能的使其含有的動(dòng)能釋放出來(lái)。D提到了overshotwheel，對(duì)應(yīng)本段最后一句。但是原文并沒(méi)說(shuō)這種輪就能輸出高于60馬單位的能量。

  6.The word "pessimistic" in the passage is closest in meaning to

  A.negative.

  B.unlikely.

  C.surprising.

  D.incomplete.

  6.根據(jù)前面一句，有了蒸汽動(dòng)力以后，水力資源就被put in doubt了。因此后面修飾水力資源利用前景的一定是一個(gè)負(fù)面的詞。因此選擇A，負(fù)面的。B是不相似的，C是令人吃驚的，D是不完整的。

  7.The term "by then" in the passage refers to

  A.by the time steam power entered the scene.

  B.by the year 1800.

  C.by the year 1900.

  D.by the time waterwheel was becoming obsolete.

  7.因?yàn)榍拔奶岬皆?800年，水力資源利用衰敗，by then的前半句說(shuō)a century later，因此應(yīng)該是一百年以后，也就是1900年。

  8.According to paragraph 5, why did waterpower become more importantly by 1900?

  A.Better waterwheel designs improved the efficiency of waterpower.

  B.Waterpower was needed to operate steam engines.

  C.Waterpower was used to generate electricity.

  D.Waterwheels became more efficient than coal-powered engines.

  8.這段第一句就指出了電力發(fā)展，然后又說(shuō)水利能源的重大改變促進(jìn)了電力發(fā)展。因此符合C選項(xiàng)。

  9.Which of the sentences below best expresses the essential information in thehighlighted sentence in the passage paragraph 5? Incorrect choices change themeaning in important ways or leave out essential information.

  A.The growth of the electric-power industry stimulated significant changes in hydro technologyand scientific progress in electrotechnology in the nineteenth century.

  B.The changes in hydro technology that led to the growth of the electric-power industry also ledto discoveries and developments in electrotechnology in the nineteenth century.

  C.Advances in electrotechnology in the nineteenth century and changes in hydro technologywere responsible for the growth of the electric-power industry.

  D.In the nineteenth century, the scientific study of electrotechnology and hydro technologybenefited greatly from the growth of the electric-power industry.

  9.原文句子的邏輯關(guān)系是，electrotechnology和 changes in water growth 共同促進(jìn)了electric power 工業(yè)。A邏輯關(guān)系完全反了。B混亂的。D與A邏輯相似。因此選擇C。

  10.The word "unaltered" in the passage is closest in meaning to

  A.unimproved.

  B.unequaled.

  C.unchanged.

  D.unsatisfactory.

  10.Unaltered是一成不變的，這道題A是一個(gè)迷惑選項(xiàng)。但是unaltered并沒(méi)有進(jìn)步，改良的那層意思。因此C更合適。

  11.The discussion of the history of electric power production in paragraph 6 supportswhich of the following?

  A.1832 marked the beginning of the industrial production of electric power.

  B.Turbines using Benoit Fourneyron's design were eventually used to generate electric power.

  C.Benoit Fourneyron quickly applied Michael Faraday's discovery about electric fields to acquirea pattern for a new and more efficient waterwheel.

  D.Practical advances in hydro technology were more important to the development of electricpower than were advances in the theoretical understanding of electricity.

  11.上一段說(shuō)Benoit Fourneyron的發(fā)現(xiàn)通過(guò)發(fā)明turbine得以應(yīng)用。通過(guò)turbine就可以實(shí)現(xiàn)發(fā)電了。

  12.According to paragraph 7, what problem did the early power station in the town ofGodalming in Surrey, United Kingdom, face in providing electricity?

  A.The traditional waterwheel is used was not large enough to meet the demand for energy.

  B.The flow of the River Wey, on which the power station depended, was unreliable.

  C.The operators of the Godalming power station had little experience with hydro technology.

  D.The steam engine that turned the waterwheel was faulty and needed to be replaced.

  12.通過(guò)Godalming定位。往后閱讀之后出現(xiàn)了unfortunately的轉(zhuǎn)折，也就是要說(shuō)遇到的問(wèn)題了。"："后面就是答案了。所以選B。

  13. Look at the four squares [■] that indicate where the following sentence could beadded to the passage.Where would the sentence best fit? The steam engine thatturned the waterwheel was faulty and needed to be replaced.

  Raising water and grinding corn were by no means the only uses of the waterpower mill, andduring the following centuries, the applications of waterpower kept pace with the developingtechnologies of mining,iron working,paper making,and the wool and cotton industries. Waterwas the main source of mechanical power, and by the end of the seventeenth century,England alone is thought to have had some 20,000 working mill. There was much debate onthe relative efficiencies of different types of waterwheels. ■【A】The period from about 1650until 1800 saw some excellent scientific and technical investigations of different designs. ■【B】They revealed output powers ranging from about 1 horsepower to perhaps 60 for thelargest wheels and confirmed that for maximum efficiency,the water should pass across theblades as smoothly as possible and fall away with minimum speed, having given up almost allof its kinetic energy. ■【C】(They also proved that, in principle, the overshot wheel, a typeof wheel in which anoverhead stream of water powers the wheel, should win the efficiencycompetition.) ■【D】

  13.要插入的句子說(shuō)要resolve disagreement。而這段的第一句就說(shuō)很多debate。那么插到第一個(gè)空里正合適。

  14. Directions: An introductory sentence for a brief summary of the passage isprovided below. Complete the summary by selecting the THREE answer choices thatexpress the most important ideas in the passage. Some sentences do not belong inthe summary because they express ideas that are not presented in the passage or areminor ideas in the passage. This question is worth 2 points.

  Ever since the development of waterwheel, which occurred no later than 500 B.C.,people have used moving water as a source of power.

  A.The first water-powered machines were probably used to grind corn, and as technologyadvanced, waterwheels were used as the main source of power in many industries.

  B.In the late nineteenth century an electric power station in England began using water powerfrom a nearby river, creating a dependable source of power that quickly replaced the steamengine.

  C.In the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, design improvements I waterwheels led todiscoveries of how to increase their efficiency and power output.

  D.Almost every large town in England had a waterpower mill, allowing England to become theworld's leader in industries that depended on water for their power.

  E.Waterpower mills were probably invented about the same time in the Middle East andScandinavia and then spread to England by about the second century B.C..

  F.After declining in importance in the early 1800's, waterpower came back into demand by theend of the century as a means to power electric plants and water turbines.

  14.A正確，對(duì)應(yīng)原文第二段第一句。B錯(cuò)誤。原文說(shuō)英國(guó)的居住點(diǎn)不管大小，都有自己的mill。對(duì)應(yīng)原文第二段最后一句。C錯(cuò)誤。原文說(shuō)的是river的水流不穩(wěn)定，結(jié)果很快被steam engine取代了。對(duì)應(yīng)原文倒數(shù)第二段最后兩句。D錯(cuò)誤，對(duì)應(yīng)原文第一段，原文說(shuō)沒(méi)人知道water mill是什么時(shí)候發(fā)明的。而且后半句時(shí)間也不對(duì)。E正確，對(duì)應(yīng)原文第四段。F對(duì)應(yīng)原文第五段最后一句，和第六段。

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